CHAPTER 10

Community Ecology

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Learning Outcome
1. Describe the predation, cannibalism and
mutualism
2. Explain the types of defense mechanism in
carnivore relationship
3. Distinguish between the functional types

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What is Predation?
The transfer of energy and nutrients
in community.

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Example of Predation

1. Herbivory
2. Carnivory
3. Parasitism

Predator numbers are dependent on prey

and predator may regulate number of prey

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Predation (Fitness)

Fitness of predator
is the ability to capture the prey
Fitness of prey
- is the ability to elude or hide from
predator

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Predation- Mechanism
Plant Herbivore System

Defoliation and consumption of fruits/seeds

Defoliation destruction of plant tissue (leaf, bark,
stem, sap, roots)
Feeding on seeds can be detrimental but it helps
their dispersal (seed) mostly via feces

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 Predation- Effect on Prey (Plant) Fitness

The effects of the predation are

strong at the juvenile stages of
plant development
Grazers concentrate on young
leaves and thus remove
nutrients

Loss of nutrients young leaves

and meristems are dependent
structures get nutrients from
reserves in roots and other
tissue

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 Predation- Plant response after defoliation
Defoliation and subsequent growth alter the trees
physiologically

1. Can cause changes in hormonal growth regulators that

control bud dormancy
2. Causes increased attack by insects and disease (plant is not
established yet)
3. Reduces resources available to reproduction (loss of nutrient
and mature cell)
4. In some instances in coniferous trees defoliation causes
death because these trees do not have physiological traits
that allows them to recover

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Plant response after defoliation

Example 1 (-ve):
Plant response after attack by predator
- Plant attacked by a moth (Alsophila
pometaria)
- Leaves are smaller and canopy area is
reduced as much as 30 60%
Some trees end up with only 20-40% of
original leaf area

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Example 2 (-ve):
Aphids that suck sap can
cause reduction in growth
rate and biomass by 25%

Example 3 (+ve):
Defoliation can be beneficial
for some grasses where
grazing stimulates
production by removing
older tissue that have low
rate of photosynthesis
exposes younger leaves to
light

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Effects on Herbivore Fitness

Herbivore biomass, consumption and reproduction are

correlated to primary production

For herbivore the quality of food is low (low in N) but not

quantity (high in number)
Low quality food tough woody, fibrous and
indigestible
High quality young, soft and green or storage
organs (roots, tubers, seeds)
Food of herbivore is low quality and also hindered by plant
defences makes food unavailable, hard to digest,
unpalatable, and toxic

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 1. Prey Defenses- chemical defences
Example 1(venom and pheromone):
Snakes (venom) to avoid predators or capture prey
Fish e.g. sea lamprey release pheromones that act as
alarm and induces fright and flight

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 Prey Defenses- chemical defenses
Example 2 (secretion):

Arthropods/amphibians/reptiles take up secretions to

repel predators like birds/mammals/other insects
Copious amounts strongly odorous secretion and
easily detectable
Secretion of slimy substance/mucous may come out
of body wall millipede
May be released in air beetles
Sprayed as in grasshoppers and stink bugs

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Prey Defenses- chemical defenses
Example 3 (odor and toxic secondary substance)
Skunks and shrews odor produce secretions that discourage
predation cause bad smell

Toxic secondary substances in arthropods eg saponins,

glossypol, cynogenic glycosides
Some arthropods can take in the above substances and infuse in
their tissue
The monarch caterpillar feeds on milkweed (cardiac glycosides)
when birds eat the caterpillar they fall sick or even die

Toxic secondary substances in plants alkaloids, terpenes,

phenolics, cynogenic steroids, mustard oil, glycosides, tannins,
resins

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 2. Prey Defenses- warning coloration

Warning Coloration (Aposematic Coloration)

Animals that possess pronounced toxicity (toxins) and other
chemical defences (sting) often possess warning coloration
bold colors or designs
Bees/wasps (sting) serve notice to danger .

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 3. Prey Defenses- mimicry

One sp resembling another species for predator

avoidance usually live in the same habitat
(mimic and model)

Eg: Passiflora (plant) have evolved glandular

outgrowths on its stipules that mimic the size,
shape and colour of Heliconius sp (butterfly)
eggs
female butterfly will reject shoots that carry
eggs of other females so the plant receives a
measure of protection by egg mimicry.

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Prey Defenses- mimicry
1. Batesian (harmless vs harmful)

Harmless species (mimic) imitate the warning signals

of a harmful species (model) directed at a common
predator
Predator leaves to avoid model (harmful) it also
avoids mimic (harmless)
The Ash Borer (Podosesia syringae), a moth of the
Clearwing family (Sesiidae), is a Batesian mimic of
the Common bee
- it resembles the bee, but is not capable of stinging.

Podosesia syringae
(mimic)

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Bee (model)
Prey Defenses- mimicry
2. Mullerian (two or more harmful sp.)

Mutual resemblance of two or more harmful species,

that are not closely related and share one or more
common predators, have come to mimic each other's
warning signals
Usually members of the same genus and family
eg the viceroy butterfly mimics the monarch butterfly
(distasteful to birds)

Model
Mimic

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Viceroy butterfly Monarch butterfly

Prey Defences- mimicry
(different phylogenetic lines)

Some butterflies and butterfly larvae posses eye spot

patterns that suggest the eye of snakes or eyes of
large avian predators (that attack small birds)
Juvenile lizards & snakes mimic highly unpalatable
millipedes,
insect larvae mimic snakes
snakes even mimic snakes
Models and mimics are from different phylogenetic
lines

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 4. Prey Defences- Cryptic Coloration

Concealing Coloration or protective coloration

Allows prey to hide from predators
Involves pattern, shape, posture, movement and
behavior that make prey less visible
Common among fish, reptiles and ground nesting birds
Stick insects resemble stick or twigs

Ibexes in the Israeli desert.

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Lizard fish (to the right of the green rock),
Big Island of Hawaii
Stick insect Leaf insect 21
5. Prey Defences- Flashing Coloration

Butterflies, grasshoppers, birds and ungulates display

visible color patches when disturbed and put predator to
running away
Colour may distract and disorientate predators
In deer the colours may signal to provide group
organization when confronted by predator

Harmless Scarlet king Poisonous Coral snake 22

snake
 6. Prey Defences- Armour & Weapon

Clams, armadillos, turtles, beetles withdraw in their

armour, coats or shells

Porcupines/hedgehogs/echidnas have modified hairs

(quills) sharp and painful
Armadillos Hedgehog Echidnas

Porcupines

Armadillos

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Armadillos Porcupines
7. Prey Defences- Alarm call
(Behavioral Defences)

Alarm call when a predator is sighted

- If alarm exposes the caller it attracts

predator attention away from
conspecific (same sp.) or
- could attract more conspecifics for
cooperative defence

Alarm calls do function to warn close

relatives eg in squirrels

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Beldings Ground Squirrel

Prey Defences- Alarm call
(Behavioral Defences)

1. Alarm calls do bring in number of potential

prey that respond by mobbing (grouping) or
harassing predator
- e.g. harassment of owls by small birds
The mobbing may be at a safe distance
or by direct attack

The distraction display diverts attention of

predators from eggs and young very common
in birds

2. Living in groups is the most simplest defense

sudden movements of flight or running away
in many directions will confuse predator

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8. Prey Defences- Predator Satiation
caribou
Synchronization of births/eggs to reduce
predation of new born

Most offspring are produced in a short period

of time to enhance their numbers

e.g. strategy employed by caribou and

wildebeest
- Collective defense of young by breeding
adults
- Production of increase number of prey so
that predator only takes a fraction of them
- Remaining young will grow quickly beyond
size easily handled by predator

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wildebeest
Cannibalism

-Terrestrial cannibal (50% herbivorous)

-Aquatic/marine cannibal (predaceous)

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Cannibalism (Intraspecific Predation)

Definition:
- killing or consumption of
- either all or part of the individual
- that is from the same sp.

Common in animal kingdom and even

in humans
50% of terrestrial cannibals are
herbivorous most appropriate to
encounter shortage of protein.
- E.g. snail

Coelophysis-
Cannibalism became a
way of surviving 28
Cannibalism (Intraspecific Predation)

in aquatic and marine habitats cannibalistic species are

predaceous
i) Usually cannibalism is found in stressed populations
(rabbit, sea lion, hippo)/facing starvation/hunger (lion,
tiger)
ii) Crowded/dense population even when food is
available (hippo)

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 Cannibalism (Intraspecific Predation)
Potential cannibal?
Not all individuals in a population become cannibals
usually older and larger individuals
In some species of organisms the young may
cannibalize or consume older or bigger
individuals
Why?
Cannibalism is a mechanism to regulate/control
their population that reduces intraspecific (same
sp.) competition as food gets scarce
E.g. Larger crocs prey on the juveniles, which
keeps their numbers stable, and their other food
sources and resources from becoming scarce.

How long?
Usually short term so no chance 30
of
extinction of species
Cannibalism (Intraspecific Predation)

Cannibalism promotes selective fitness

advantage, increase longevity

Eliminates potential intraspecific

competition and provides a meal

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Mutualism

Symbiotic
Non symbiotic

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Mutualism

is a positive, reciprocal relationship at the individual

or population level between 2 different species

both species enhance their survival, growth and

fitness

may be symbiotic or non symbiotic

i. Symbiotic - two organisms live in close physical

association both derive benefit at least one
member of the pair cannot lead an independent life
ii. Non symbiotic the species do not live together,
both members benefit each other relationship is
either facultative or opportunistic

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Other Forms of Mutualisms
1. Obligatory - organisms cannot survive in the
absence of the other partner.
- E.g. fungi and algae that combine to form
lichen are obligate symbiotic
- E.g. yucca moth and yucca plant are obligate
non-symbiotic

2. Facultative - organism can lead an

independent existence, interacting species
derive benefit without being fully dependent.
Mutualism is not essential for the survival of
either sp
Both of the sp will engage when both of the sp
is present
- E.g. Many plants produce fruits that are eaten
by birds. Birds would be the pollinator in
return. 34
Obligate Symbiotic- Mycorrhizae

mycorrhizae is association between a

fungus and plants (roots)
- plant supplies energy (photosynthesis) to
fungi
- fungal hyphae take up mineral nutrients
from the soil and transport them into plants
roots

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Obligate Symbiotic- Coral reefs anthozoans+
photosynthetic zooxanthellae
Trophic mutualism
Coral reefs corraline anthozoans and photosynthetic
dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae)

Zooxanthellae provide the photosynthetic products to the

heterotrophic anthozoans
Coral anthozoans remove, retain and recycle essential nutrients from
the water used by zooxanthellae

The chemical interaction between the coral cells and the

zooxanthellae facilitates crystalization of calcium carbonate
- zooxanthellae help the corals grow

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zooxanthellae
Obligate Nonsymbiotic-
Yucca moth/plant

Dispersive mutualism

Yucca flowers are a certain

shape so only
-that tiny moth can pollinate
them. yucca moth placing
pollen on yucca stigma

The moths lay their eggs in

the yucca ovary and
- the larvae (caterpillars) live
in the developing ovary and
eat yucca seeds.
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 Obligate Nonsymbiotic-
Acacia ant/plant
Defensive mutualism

ants protect the plant from herbivores

at the least disturbance they swarm from
shelters and produce disgusting odours
and attack intruder

Acacia gives ants more than thorns to Here three ants sip38
nectar
live in. She feeds them sweet sap from their host tree.
through special organs called nectaries.
Functional responses
Relationship between prey and
predators. 3 types of functional
responses:

Type I
Type II
Type III

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II III I

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Type I (Linear)
The no of prey eaten per predator increases linearly to a
maximum but then suddenly reaches a constant value
when the predator is satiated
Based on the Lotka-Voltera equation
(dN1/dt = r1N1(K1 N1)/K1)
Best demonstrated in the lab
Exhibit by the long-eared owl (Asio otus) and the
Microtus vole population

Asio otus
Microtus vole

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Type II (cyrtoid) Corophium Tringa totanus

Functional response in which the attack rate increases at

a decreasing rate of prey density until it becomes
constant at satiation.
Cyrtoid behavioral responses are typical of predators
that specialize on one or a few prey.
E.g amphipod crustaceans (Corophium) being eaten by a
shorebird (Tringa totanus)
E.g the 1st instar of spider (Linyphia triangularis) feeding
on Drosophila

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Drosophila Linyphia triangularis
Type III (sigmoid)
i. No of prey taken is low at 1st,
ii. then the attack rate accelerates and finally
iii. decelerate towards satiation approaching asymptote
Predator may require a learning period (i) to develop
searching and handling skills for a particular food item before
they can feed on it efficiently (ii)

E.g, bay-breasted warbler (Dendroica castanea) feeding on

spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana)
Dendroica castanea

Choristoneura fumiferana
budworm

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