Packet Transmission

Computers use data grouped into

packets for transmission
Local Area Networks
Wide Area Networks
Addressing and Routing
Concepts of Packets
Computer networks divide data into small blocks
called packets
Packets are send individually
Often called packet networks and packet switching
networks
Motivation for using packets
Sender and receiver needs to coordinate transmission to
ensure that data arrives correctly
Helps determine which blocks arrive intact and which do
not
Computers often share underlying connections and
hardware
Packet switching helps ensure fairness to access
Shared Resources
The first networks
A 5 MB file at 56 Kbps will take 12 min to transfer from A to D
B & C must wait
Packet networks
Divide data into packets of 1000 bytes each
A sends a packet to D taking only 143 ms
B transmits data to C
A continues
No long delays
Packets and TDM
Time Division Multiplexing
Many resources take turns accessing the shared
communication resources
All sources receive prompt service
The source with less data finishes early
Packets and Frames
Packet refers to a small block of data
Each hardware technology uses different
packet format
Frame denotes packet used with specific type
of network
EX : RS-232 mechanism
Does not include a mechanism that allows a
sender to signal the end of a block of characters
Sending and receiving computers must agree on
such details
Packets and Frames (Cont.)
Network systems can choose two unused values to define
format
EX: RS-232 can use frame delimiters
Soh –start of header
Eot – end of transmission
Overhead is an disadvantage
An extra, unnecessary character between blocks of data
Advantageous when large delays or computer crashes
Missing eot indicates sending computer crashed
Missing soh indicates receiver missed beginning of frame
Byte Stuffing
Data and control information must be
distinguished
Network system change the data slightly
before it is sent
Termed data stuffing
Insert extra bits or bytes to change data
Byte stuffing and character stuffing
Data stuffing used with character oriented
hardware
Bit stuffing
Data stuffing used with bit oriented hardware
Byte Stuffing (Cont)
EX : RS-232
soh and eot must not appear in the data
Byte stuffing reserves a third character ‘esc’
Marks occurrences of reserved characters

Character Characters
in data sent
Soh Esc x
Eot Esc y
esc Esc z
Implementing Byte Stuffing
Sender must scan and perform mapping before any
data is sent
Sender replaces characters
Receiver looks for a combination of ‘esc’ followed by a
x, y or z
Replaces combination by appropriate single characters
Receiver is sure that soh and eot are frame delimiters
Transmission Errors
Interference can introduce unwanted electric
currents in wires
Interference can cause
The receiver to misinterpret the data
The receiver to lose the data sent by sender
The receiver to detect data, although sender did
not send any data
Termed transmission errors
The problem of lost ,changed or spuriously
appearing data
Parity
Even or odd
Sender and receiver must agree in which form to use
Even parity – the total number of 1 bits (including parity bit)
must be even
EX : parity bit for 0100101 is 1
Parity bit for 0101101 is 0
Odd parity – total number of 1 bits (including parity bit) must
be odd
EX : parity bit for 0100101 is 0
Receivers computation of parity must agree to sender’s
Else receiver reports parity error
Parity Checking
Parity check – mechanism requires the sender to
compute an additional bit, called parity bit
RS-232 circuits uses parity check to ensure that
each character arrives intact
Attach parity bit to each character before sending
Receiver removes the parity bit and performs the
same operation as the sender
Verifies the result with the value of the parity bit
If one of the bits is damaged, receiver reports
error
Error Detection
Parity cannot detect error involving an even
number of bits
EX : Two 0 bits changed to 1
Two 1 bits changed to 0
One 0 bit changed to 1 and vice versa
Parity is preserved even with errors
Alternative mechanisms used depending on :
The size of the additional information
The computational complexity of the algorithm
The number of bit errors that can be detected
Checksums
Checksum : sender treats the data as a sequence
of binary integers and computes their sum
Carry bits, if any, are added into the final sum
Advantages : size and ease of computation and
cost of transmission
Disadvantages : cannot detect all common errors
Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC)
CRC hardware uses
A shift register
An exclusive or (xor) unit
To compute a CRC
Values in shift registers initialized to 0
Bits of message shifted once at a time
One bit of message applied at input
All shift register perform shift operation

Shift registers X-or unit

CRC (Cont.)
Shift registers contain CRC after entire message
has been shifted
Receiver uses identical hardware and compares
CRC
To simplify checking CRC
Append and additional 16 bits of zeroes to message
Receiver computes CRC over incoming message plus
incoming CRC
If no errors,value should be zero
Uses a polynomial expressed as a power of X
P( X ) = X 16 +X 12 +X5+1
Burst Errors
CRC is especially useful with
Vertical errors
Burst errors
Vertical errors appear in a vertical column when
characters are arranged in rows
EX : Damaged character oriented I/O device
Burst errors – involve changes to a small set of
bits near a single location
Caused by electric interference from lighting ,
electric motor, etc.
Frame Format and Error Detection
Networks usually associate error detection with
each frame
If no characters are lost , byte stuffing of CRC is
not required
If CRC is not byte stuffed, a single character loss
causes the receiver to discard two frames
Individual standards specify whether CRC is
computed on the message or the encoded frame
Local Area Network (LAN)
Most networks are local i.e. the network fits
inside a building or a single room
Permits multiple computers to share
resources
Ex:a printer accessed by two computers in a
network
No separate modems and cables
Computers must take turns using the shared
medium
Direct Point to Point Communication
Point to point network or mesh network
Each communication channel connects and is availabel to two
computers
Advantages
Independent installation facilitates use of appropriate hardware
Connected computers decide how to communicate
Easy to enforce security and privacy
Disadvantages
Must provide a separate communication
channel for each pair of computers
Number of connections grows quickly
as the size of set increases
Direct Point to Point Communication (Cont.)
Number of connections needed for N computers is
(N2 – N) /2
Adding Nth computer requires N-1 connections
Expenses are high because many connections follow same
physical path
Ex: In fig., 6 connections pass between two locations
If one computer is added to location1 , number of
connection become 9
Shared Communication Channels
LAN developed during the late 1960s and early
1970s
Consists of a single shared medium
Computers take turns using the medium to send
packets
Reduces cost
Shared network used for only local commnucation
Large geographic separation introduces longer delays
Shred network with long delays are inefficient
Providing high bandwidth communication channel over
long distances is expensive
Locality of Reference
LANs now connect more computers than any other
type of network
Locality of reference – computer communication
follows two patterns
Temporal locality of reference: a computer is more likely
to communicate with the same set of computer
repeatedly
Physical locality of reference: a computer tends to
communicate with computers that are physically nearby
LAN Topologies
Star topology :- All computers attach to a central
point
The center of the star network often called hub
Hub accepts and delivers data
In practice, star networks seldom have a
symmetric shape
A hub often resides in a location separate from
the computers attached to it
LAN Topologies (Cont.)
Ring topology:- arranges for computers to be
connected in a closed loop
A cable connects first computer to second,another
cable connects second to third and so on
A cable connects the final computer to the first
Refers to logical connection not physical orientation
LAN Topologies (Cont.)
Bus topology:- Consists of a single ,long cable
to which computers attach
Any computer can send data to any computer
Coordination is necessary to ensure that only
one computer sends a single at any time
Why Multiple Topologies?
Each topology has advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Ring makes it easy to coordinate access and detect
operation
Star protects network from damage by single wire
Bus requires fewer wires than star
Disadvantages
Entire ring network is disabled if one of the cables is cut
Bus network is disabled if main wire is damaged
Ethernet
Widely used network topology that employs
bus topology
Invented at Xerox corporation’s Palo Alto
Research center in early 1970s
Consists of a single coaxial cable, called the
ether, to which multiple computers connect
Ethernet coaxial cable also termed segment
Length limited to 500 m , minimum
separation between pairs is 3 m
Ethernet Operation
Original Ethernet hardware operated at 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet operates at 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps
The Ethernet standard specifies all details
Multiple computers share access to a single medium
Sending computer has exclusive use of the entire
cable
Carrier Sense on Multiple Access(CSMA) Networks

Ethernet network does not have a centralized controller

Ethernet employs CSMA to coordinate transmission among
multiple attached computers
CSMA :- Idea of using the presence of a signal to determine
when to transmit
Uses electrical activity on the cable to determine status
Signals informally called a carrier
If no carrier present , transmit
Carrier present, must wait for the sender to finish
Technically , Carrier Sense is checking for a carrier wave
Collision Detect
CSMA cannot prevent all possible conflicts
Two computers send a frame at the same time
finding the cable idle
Interference between two signals is called a collision
No hardware damage but produces garbled value
Ethernet standards require sending station to
monitor signals
Technically termed as collision detect
Ethernet mechanism known as Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detect
Back Off With CSMA/CD
While detecting collisions , CSMA/CD recovers from them
To avoid multiple collisions , each computer delays
retransmission
Computer choose random delay, between 0 and maximum
delay , d
If choice of delay is nearly same , collisions occur
Random delay doubled at each successive collisions 0-d , 0-
2d, 0-4d ,…
Binary exponential back off
Doubling the range of random delay after each collision
Wireless LAN
Uses antenna to broadcast RF signals
Data send at 2 Mbps using 900 Mhz frequency
All computers configured to the same frequency
Transmitters use low power
Enough power to travel a short distance
Metallic obstructions can block the signal
Cannot use CSMA/CD mechanism
CSMA/CA
Wireless LANs use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance
Operation
Computer 1 transmits brief control message
Computer 2 receives and responds
Computer 1 receives response and begins transmission
Control message collide
Sending station apply random
back-off before retransmission
Local Talk
A LAN that employs bus topology
Invented by apple computer corporation
Designed for apple Macintosh which includes all required
hardware
Uses a version of CSMA/CD
Disadvantages
Lower bandwidth (230.4 kbps)
Distance limitations
Advantages
Almost free
Easy to install
Available on many computers
IBM Token Ring
LANs employing ring
topology use token
passing mechanism
Token Ring operates as
a single shared medium
A special, short
message called token
coordinates use of the
ring
A token permits
transmission of one
frame
IBM Token Ring (Cont.)
One token exists on the ring t any time
Each computer sends one frame before passing token
Token cycles around when no data to send
Time taken is brief (milliseconds) because
Token is small
Handled by ring hardware , not CPU
IMB Token Ring is best known token passing network
Operates at 16 million bps
Used with computers from IBM , other vendors and
printers
Fiber distributed data Interconnect (FDDI)
Token Ring technology
Transmission rate of 100 million bps
Uses optical fibers to interconnect computers
Contains two complete rings ( counter rotating) to overcome
failures
Self healing network
Hardware detects
a catastrophic failure
and recovers
automatically
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
A star topology developed by telephone companies
One or more interconnected switches form a central hub to
which all computers attach
Designed to provide high bandwidth
ATM switch operates at 155 Mbps or faster
Each connection uses a pair of optical fibers
Hardware Addressing
Any signal sent across a shared network reaches all attached
stations
Each station on the LAN is assigned a unique numeric value
Called physical/hardware/media access address
Sender includes hardware address of intended recipients
Each frame begins with a header consisting of
Destination address fields
Source address fields
Network interface hardware examines address fields in
frames
Accepts only those frames where destinations address
matches station’s address
LAN Hardware
Handles details of sending and receiving frames
Operates without using the station’s CPU
Uses physical addressing to prevent receiving all
packets
Addressing Schemes
Static addressing scheme
Hardware manufacturers assign unique physical address
Address does not change unless hardware is replaced
Easy to use and permanent
Configurable addressing scheme
Mechanism to set a physical address
Used by most network administrators because
Address are permanent
No large addresses because unique only to a single
network
Interface can be replaced without changing computer’s
physical address
Addressing Schemes (Cont.)
Dynamic addressing scheme
Mechanism that automatically assigns a physical address
to the station when the station first boots
Tries random numbers until a unique address is found
Advantages
No need for manufacturers to coordinate in assigning
addresses
Allows each address to be smaller
Uniqueness is only important within a single LAN
Disadvantages
Lack of permanence
Potential conflict
Broadcasting
Refers to transmissions available to a large audience
All stations receive a copy of the signal each time a frame is
transmitted
To make broadcasting efficient, most LANs use broadcast
address
Hardware interface recognizes both the special broadcast
address and the station’s physical address
A frame with either of the two addresses is accepted and
delivered to the computer’s operating system
Ex: Finding a printer by its name
Multicasting
Broadcasting is extremely inefficient because
Processing and discarding a frame requires computational
resources
Multicasting operates like broadcasting
Single copy of the frame travels across the network
All network interfaces receives a copy
Interface hardware must be programmed with
specifications
Accepts or rejects frames according to the
specifications
Multicast Addressing
Some addresses reserved for multicast
Interface is programmed to recognize only the
computer’s address and the broadcast address
Application wishing to receive multicast frames must
inform interface
Multicast address must be chosen for an application
Application must be configured to use the address
Passes multicast address to the interface
Interface adds the address to the set it recognizes
Identifying Packets Contents
The address does not specify what the packet contains
Each frame contains additional information specifying the type
of the contents
Two methods used to identify contents of the frame
Explicit frame type
Network hardware designers specify how type information
is included in the frame
Different values used to identify various frame types
Also called self identifying frame
Implicit frame type
Frame carries only data
Sender and receiver must agree on the contents of the
frame
Frame Headers & Format
Frame format is defined by LAN technology
Most LAN technologies define a frame consisting of two
parts
Frame header
Contains information such as source and destination addresses
Data area or payload
Contains the information being sent
All frames have same header size but different data area
Ethernet Frame Format
Begins with a header with three fields
64-bit preamble contains alternating 1s and 0s for
synchronization
First two fields contains physical address
Ethernet uses 48-bit static addressing scheme
Third field contains16-bit frame type
Ethernet types have been standardized
Ethernet Frame Format(Cont.)
DIX standard specifies the values used
in the header fields and their meanings
Hexadecimal value Meaning
0000-05DC IEEE LLC/SNAP
0800 Internet IP 4
0805 CCITT X.25
8008 AT&T Corp.
FFFF Reserved
Networks Without Self Identifying Frames

Some technologies do not include type field

Type of data is specified by two approaches
To use a single format of data
To use first few octets of the data field to store
type information
Type Information Standard
IEEE standard includes a field to specify standards
organization and individual field types
Known as Logical Link Control(LLC) Sub Network Attachment
Point(SNAP)
LLS specifies that a type field follows
SNAP contains two fields
Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) identifying organization
Second contains a type value defined by organization
LLC/SNAP type field makes it possible to broadcast frames
Network Analyzer
A device used to determine how well a network
system is performing
Most analyzers are portable & flexible
Consists of a standard portable computer and LAN
interface
User configures parameters used by analyzers
Network interface hardware is in promiscuous
mode i.e. accepts all frames
Can be used to debug problems on a network
Network analyzers can be configured for specific
analysis
Network Interface Hardware
Networks operates at a much higher speed than a CPU
Network adapter card/ network Interface Card (NIC)
Connects computer to a network and handles all details of packet
transmission and reception
NIC
Operates independent of the CPU
Handles the details of accessing the medium
and transmitting bits
Ex: Receiving a packet
CPU allocates buffer space in memory
Instructs NIC to read incoming packets
NIC copies, verifies and checks the frame
If address matches, NIC stores a copy
Interrupts the CPU
Thick Ethernet Wiring
Informally called thick wire Ethernet or Thicknet
Consists of a large coaxial cable
Digital hardware
NIC handles digital aspects including error detection and
address recognition
Analog hardware
Transceiver handles analog signals
Must for each computer
Attaches directly to the Ethernet cable
A separate called Attachment Unit Interface(AUI)
connects the transceiver and the NIC
Thick Ethernet Wiring (Cont.)
AUI cables contains many wires
Two for data
One each for providing power to and controlling transceiver
Cable terminated by a terminator
It is a resistor connecting center wire in a cable to the shield
Prevents reflection of the signal from the end
Connection Multiplexing
Connection multiplexor
allows multiple computers
to attach to a single
transceiver
Provides exactly the same
signal as a transceiver
Cable from each computer
connects to a port on
multiplexor
A single AUI cable connects
the multiplexor to the
Ethernet
Thin Ethernet Wiring
Informally called thin wire Ethernet or Thinnet
Uses a thinner, more flexible coaxial cable
Advantages
Costs less to install and operate
No external transceivers are needed
Uses BNC connectors instead of AUI cable
Both thick and thin cables are coaxial, requires termination
and use the bus topology
Twisted Pair Ethernet
Formally called 10 Base –T
Also twisted pair Ethernet or simply TP Ethernet
An electronic device called an
Ethernet hub serves as a
center of the network
Connection from NIC to
the hub uses twisted pair
wiring with RJ-45
connectors
Office
Wiring Thicknet

Schemes
Thinnet

10Base-T
Topology Paradox
Network technology can use a variety of
wiring schemes
Technology determines logical topology
Wiring scheme determines the physical
topology
Physical topology can be different can be
different from logical topology
Ex: A twisted pair Ethernet forms a star but
functions like a bus
NIC and Wiring Schemes
Network interface supports
multiple wiring schemes
A single Ethernet NIC has
three connectors
Can use only one wiring
scheme at a time
Wiring can be changed
without changing NIC
Other Network Technologies
Different technologies accommodate a variety of wiring
scheme
Ex: The original Local Talk uses transceivers like thicknet
Uses point-to-point connection between pairs of transceivers
Although Local Talk is a bus technology it sometimes uses
hub technology
LAN Design
Distance limitation is a fundamental point
LANs use a shared communication media
CSMA/CD or Token passing is used to guarantee fair
access to medium
LAN is designed with a fixed maximum cable length
to minimize delays
An electrical signal gradually becomes weaker as it
travels along a copper wire
This puts a limitation on the maximum length of the
wire allowed
Fiber Optic Extensions
LAN extension mechanisms insert additional hardware
components that can relay signals across longer distances
Ex: Optical fibers and a pair of fiber modems
Fiber has low density and high bandwidth
Provides a connection between a computer and a distant
Ethernet
Inserted between the network interface on a computer and a
remote transceiver
Repeaters
An analog electronic device that continuously monitors
signals on each cable
Used to extend LAN
Connects two Ethernet cables called segments
When it senses a signal on one cable, it transmits an
amplified copy on another
A repeater can double the effective length
Any pair of computers on the extended LAN can
communicate

Repeater
Repeaters(Cont.)
Each repeater and segment
along the path increase delay
Ethernet standards limits that
no more than four repeaters
separate any pairs of stations
The connection can be
extended by using fiber
modems and Fiber Optic Intra
Repeater Link ( FOIRL)
Along with valid
transmissions, the repeaters
propagates a collision or
electrical interference
Bridges
An electronic device that connects and extends two LAN
segments
Handles complete frames and uses same network interface
as a conventional computer
Helps isolate problems by forwarding only complete and
correct frames
Any pair of computers can communicate on extended LAN

Bridge
Frame Filtering
A typical bridge consists of a
conventional computer with a CPU,
memory and two network interfaces
A bridge performs frame filtering
Does not forward a frame
unless necessary
Uses physical address to
determine whether to forward a frame
Called adaptive or learning bridges
because they learn the locations of
computers automatically
Uses source address to list computers
Bridged Networks
Bridged networks running for a long time restricts
frames to the fewest segments necessary
Propagation principle
In the steady state, a bridge forwards each frame only as
far as necessary
Permits communication on separate segments at
the same time(parallelism)
To optimize performance, a set of computers that
interact frequently should be attached to the same
segment
Bridging Between Buildings
An optical fiber and pair of fiber modems are used to extend
one of the connections between a bridge and a LAN segment
The use of a bridge has following advantages
Single fiber connection makes it less expensive
Individual computer can be added or removed without installing or
changing the wiring
Communication in buildings is independent
Bridges Across Longer Distances
Involves a long distance point-to-point connection and special
bridge hardware
Leased serial line used because it is less expensive
Leased satellite channel used for communication across an
arbitrary distance
Bridge hardware has
two main functions
Filtering frames
Buffering
Cycle Of Bridges
A bridge network can span many segments
Not all bridges allowed to broadcast frames
A cycle of bridges causes infinite number of frames

Eight segment bridged network Bridges connected in a cycle

Distributed Spanning Tree(DST)
To prevent infinite loops, a bridged network cannot allow
All bridges forwarding all frames
A cycle of bridged segments
To prevent loops, bridges configure themselves automatically
When a bridge first boots, it communicates with other bridges
Computes Distributed Spanning Tree algorithm
To decide which bridges will not forward frames
DST prevents bridges from introducing a cycle
After DST completes, bridges are arranged in a form of a tree
Switching
A switched LAN consists
of a single electronic
device that transfers frame
among many computers
A switch simulates a bridged
LAN with one computer per
segment
Consists of multiple ports
each attached to a computer
One-half of the computers
can send data at the same
time
Switches And Hubs
Switches cost more per connection than a hub
because it provides higher aggregate data rates
Combination is used to reduce cost
A hub connects to each port on switch
Each computer connects to one of the hub
Each hub appears to be a single LAN segment
Switch makes it appears that bridges connect all
segments
Communication can occur in parallel
Digital Telephony
Digitization is performed by an analog-to-digital
converter(A-to-D converter
Takes analog input a signal
Samples the signal regularly
Computes a corresponding value at time of the sample
Known as Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Samples once every 125 μ sec and converts into an integer
between 0 and 255
Synchronous Communication
Telephone industry have devise complex digital
communication systems
Voice system use synchronous or clocked technology
Most data networks use asynchronous technology
Data moves at a precise rate in synchronous network
Network does not slow down as traffic increases
Telephone systems transmits additional information
along with digitized data to ensure continuous
transmission
Digital Circuits and DSU/CSU
leased digital circuits from common carriers form the
fundamental building blocks for long distance computer
networks
Standards differ between computer and telephone industry
Data Service Unit/Channel Service Unit (DSU/CSU)
Hardware needed to interface a computer to a digital circuit
CSU portion
Handles line termination and diagnostics
Helps in installing and testing circuits
Uses bit stuffing
DSU portion
Translates data between
two digital formats
Telephone Standards
Name Bit Rate Voice Location
Mbps Circuits
-- 0.064 1
T1 1.544 24 North America
T2 6.312 96 North America
T3 44.736 672 North America
E1 2.048 30 Europe
E2 8.448 120 Europe
E3 34.368 480 Europe
DS Standards
A single voice channel requires 64 Kbps(8000 8 bit
samples/sec)
Digital circuits are classified according to a set of
telephone standards
Most popular circuit types in North America
T1 and T3
Digital signal level standards or DS standards
Specify how to multiplex phone calls onto a single
connection
28 T1 circuits can be multiplexed over single T3
circuit
Lower Capacity Circuits
T1 circuit is too expensive
Fractional T1 circuits
Capacity much less than 1.544 Mbps
Most popular fractional T1 rate is 56
Kbps
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Concept of subdividing T1 circuits
Intermediate Capacity Digital Circuits
Slightly more than T1 and less than T3
Inverse multiplexing is used
Allows one to lease multiple T1 circuits
Multiple circuits acts like a single higher capacity circuit
Inverse multiplexor is needed at each end of line
DSU/CSU may be required if not built in inverse mux
Highest Capacity Circuits
Also termed as trunk
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) standards
Specifies details of high speed connections
Serves connections across country or between countries

Standard Optical Bit Rate Voice

Name Name Mbps Circuits
STS-1 OC-1 51.840 810
STS-3 OC-3 155.520 2430
STS-12 OC-12 622.080 9720
STS-24 OC-24 1244.160 19440
STS-48 OC-48 2488.320 38880
Optical Carrier
Higher data rates associated with the STS standards
require optical fiber
STS referred to electrical signals
OC refers to optical signals
Both can be concatenated (suffix C)
C denotes a circuit with no inverse multiplexing
OC-3 consists of 3 OC-1 operating at 51.840 Mbps each
OC-3C (STS-3C) is a single circuit operating at 155.520
Mbps
Single circuit is more flexible
Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET)
Used in North America
Known as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy(SDH) in Europe
Specifies details about framing, multiplexing and
synchronization
Size of the SONET frame depends on the bit rate
Can be used to build a high capacity ring network with
multiple data circuits
Mostly used to define framing and encoding

STS-1
SONET
frame
Local Subscriber Loop
Termed local loop or local subscriber line
Connection between the phone company Central
Office and individual subscriber residence
Uses analog signals
Most subscribers use a telephone to dial a
local service provider
Voice bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio of
telephone lines limit the rate at which bits are
sent
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
Provides digitized voice and data over local loop wiring
Uses twisted pair copper wiring
Offers three separate digital channels
B, B and D (2B + D)
The two B channels
Operate at 64 Kbps each
Carries digitized voice, data or compressed video
The D channel
Operates at 16 Kbps
Intended as a control channel
Manages or terminates a session
Both B channels bonded as a single channel
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

Asymmetric service, termed ADSL

Bit rate in one direction is much higher
Typical users receive more information than they
send
ADSL provides higher bit rate downstream (to the
subscriber) than upstream (from subscriber to the
provider)
Maximum downstream rate is 6.144 Mbps
Maximum upstream rate is 640 Kbps
Operates on local loop wiring
ADSL (Cont.)
ADSL is adaptive
Modems probe the line and agree to communicate using
techniques to optimize line
Uses Discrete Multitone Modulation (DMT)
Combination of frequency
division and inverse multiplexing
Divides bandwidth in 286
separate frequencies or
sub channels
Selects the best frequencies
and modulation techniques
Other DSL Technologies
Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)
Provides symmetric rates in both direction
Businesses prefer SDSL
Can operate over local loops
High-rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL)
Provides DS-1 (1.544 Mbps) in two directions
Requires two independent twisted pairs
Able to tolerate failure
Very-high bit rate Digital Subscriber Line(VDSL)
Data rate of up to 52 Mbps
Requires intermediate concentration parts
Cable Modem Technology
Uses cable TV wiring
Offers higher speed and less susceptibility to
electromagnetic interference
Consists of high capacity coaxial cable
Uses broadband signaling (frequency division
multiplexing)
One pair of cable modems is required for each
subscriber
When subscribers are more, Time Division
Multiplexing is used
One frequency for a set of subscribers
Upstream Communication
CATV is designed for downstream direction only
Dual path approach
Cable system handles only downstream traffic
Upstream traffic travels across a dial-up telephone
connection
Needs hardware interface device to connect cable
modem and dial-up modem
Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)
Combination of optical fibers and coaxial cables
HFC can only be used with modified infrastructure
Trunk lines replaced by optical fibers
All amplifier modified to be bi-directional
Large Networks
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Spans a single building or campus
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
Spans a single city
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Spans sites in multiple cities, countries or continents
WAN differs from LAN
Must be able to grow (scalability)
Must deliver reasonable performance to large sized
networks
Must provide capacity for simultaneous communication
Packet Switches
WAN is constructed from many switches to which individual
computers connect
Called a packet switch
Moves complete packet from one connection to another
Consists of a small computer with processor, memory and
I/O devices
Two types of I/O connectors
One operates at high speed and connects to other packet switches
Second operates at low speed and connects switch to computers
Forming a WAN
A set of packet switches are interconnected
A switch has multiple I/O connectors
Forms many different topologies
Can connect multiple computers
Store And Forward
WAN permits many computers to send packets
simultaneously
Uses store and forward switching
A packet switch must buffer packets in memory
The store operation
Occurs when a packet arrives
Copies the packet in memory
Informs the processor
The forward operation
Processor examines the packet
Determines the destination path
Start the output device
Buffers a short burst of packets that arrives simultaneously
Physical Addressing
Each computer assigned a physical address
For efficient forwarding hierarchical addressing scheme is
used
Divides an address into multiple parts
First part indicates a packet switch
Second part identifies computer attached to that packet
switch
An address is represented as a single binary value
Next-hop Forwarding
A packet switch uses destination address to forward each
packet
Next-hop forwarding
Switch contains information about the next place (hop)
Depends on the packet’s destination and not on the source
Called source independent
Hierarchical Addresses To Routing
Routing
Process of forwarding a packet to its next hop
Routing table
Table used to store next-hop information
All destination addresses have an identical first part
Using only the first part helps in
Reducing computation time
Shortening routing table
The final packet switch
uses the second part
Routing in a WAN
A WAN with large capacity can be build by increasing
switching capacity
Interior switches
Handles load, but need not have computers attached
Exterior switches
Packet switches to which computers attach
Both switches have routing tables
Universal routing
Routing table contains next-hop route for each possible
destination
Optimal routes
The next-hop value points to the shortest path to the
destination
Routing in a WAN (Cont.)
A graph can
model a network
Each node
corresponds to a
packet switch
Each link
corresponds to a
direct connection
Default Routes
A graph representing a large WAN may contain
many duplicate entries
Default route or Default routing table
A long list of entries having same next-hop value is
replaced by a single entry
Only one default entry is allowed in any routing
table
A default entry is present only if more than one
destination has the same next-hop value
Routing Table Computation
Static routing
A program computes and installs routes when a
packet switch boots, the routes do not change
Dynamic routing
A program builds an initial routing table and then
alters the table as condition changes
Static routing is simple and has low overhead
Most networks use dynamic routing because
Handles problems automatically
Modifies routes to accommodate failures
Shortest Path Computation
Dijkstra’s algorithm
Finds the distance along a shortest path from a single
source node to each of the other nodes in the graph
A next-hop routing table is constructed during the
computation of shortest path
Uses weights on edges as a measure of distance
A path with fewest number of edges may not be
the path with least weight

The shortest path

between 4 & 5 is
shown darkened
Distributed Route Computation
Each packet switch computes its routing table locally
Informs the network of the result
Sends routing information to neighbors periodically
Each packet switch learns the shortest path to all
destinations
Produces the same next-hop routing table as
Dijkstra’s algorithm
Allows the network to adapt to a failure
Distance Vector Routing
Distance-vector algorithm uses distributed
route computation
Each link in network is assigned a weight
Distance to a destination is defined to be the
sum of weights along the paths
A packet switch periodically updates the
network
Each message contains pairs of
(destination,distance)
Link-State Routing (SPF)
Also called shortest path first or SPF routing
Packet switches sends messages with status
of the link
Message broadcast to all switches
Each switch collects information and builds
the graph of the network
Switches use Dijkstra’a algorithm to produce
routing table
SPF algorithm can adapt to hardware failures
WAN Technologies
ARPANET
One of the first packet switched WANs
Fast when invented, slow by current standards
X.25
Developed an early standard for WAN technology
More popular in Europe
Frame relay
Accepts and delivers blocks of data
Must operate at high data rates
Switched Multi-megabit Data Service( SMDS)
Offered by long-distance carriers
Operates at speed faster than frame relay
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Provides voice, video and data services across a wide
area
Has high data rates, low delay and low jitter (low
variance in delay)
Data divided into fixed sized packets called cells
Each ATM cell has 53 octets
5 for header information and 48 for data
A Constant Bit Rate (CBR) is specified for voice or
video
Uses switches as primary building blocks
Uses optical fiber as interconnection media
Network Ownership
Private networks
Owned and used by a single company or an individual
Public networks
Owned by common carriers such as telephone networks
Anyone can subscribe to the service and connect a
computer
LAN technology is most often used for public networks
Almost all public networks are WANs
The chief advantage with private networks is complete control
Public networks are flexible and able to use state-of-the-art
networking without maintaining technical expertise
Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
Combines advantages of both private and public
networks
Allows a company with multiple sites to have private
network
Uses a public network as a carrier
VPN technology restricts traffic only between the
company’s sites
A special hardware and software system is placed
between company’s and public network
VPN encrypts each packet before transmission
Network manager must also configure routing
Service Paradigm
Connection-oriented service
Operates analogous to a telephone system
Requires a pair of computers to establish a connection
before sending data
Either computer can choose to terminate the connection
Connection-less service
Operates analogous to a postal mail system
Computers do not need to establish a connection before
they can communicate
Accepts and delivers individual frames that each specify a
destination
Less initial overhead
Connection Types
Permanent connection
Dedicated wires between a pair of computers
Is persistent and always available
Does not require maintenance
Always ready to accept data
Switched connection
Must establish a connection to communicate
Each computer maintains physical connection to network
Is flexible and general
Permanent connections survive
either a computer or
a network reboot
Switched Connections
Examples of Service Paradigms
Technology Connection Connection Used Used
-Oriented less for for
LAN WAN
Ethernet  
Token Ring  
FDDI  
Frame Relay  
SMDS  
ATM   
Local Talk  
Connection Identifiers
Connection oriented service uses abbreviated addresses
A small integer used to communicate after a connection is
established
Ex: ATM network uses 28-bit connection identifiers
The computer places the identifier in each outgoing cell
ATM divides connection identifiers into two parts
12-bit virtual path
identifier ( VPI )
16-bit virtual circuit
identifier ( VCI)

ID - Identifier
Network Performance Characteristics
Delay
Specifies how long it takes for a bit of data to travel
across the network ( in seconds)
Propagation delay
Time a signal requires to travel across a wire or optical
fiber
Switching delay
Delay introduced by electronic devices in network
Access delay
Delays caused when waiting to access a shared media
Queuing delay
Occurs in packet switched WAN because it enqueues
packets
Network Performance Characteristics (Cont.)
Throughput
Measure of the rate at which data can be sent through a
network
Specified in bits per second, bps
Throughput is measure of capacity, not speed
Throughput and delay are related by
D = D0 / ( 1 – U)
D0 = idle network delay
U = current utilization between 0 and 1
D = Effective delay
Volume of data present on the network
Product of delay and throughput ( T * D )
Protocols
Protocol
A set of rules that specify the format of messages and the
appropriate action required for each message
Protocol software
The software that implements such rules
Application programs do not interact with network
hardware
Communication software is divided into multiple
protocols
Protocols are designed and developed in complete,
cooperative sets called suites or families
Protocol Design
Layering model
Describes one way a
communication
problem can be
divided into sub-
pieces called layers
ISO defined a 7-
layer model
The Seven Layers
Layer 1 : Physical
Corresponds to basic network hardware
Ex: RS 232
Layer 2: Data Link
Specifies how to organize data into frames and transmit
over a network
Ex: Frame format and CRC
Layer 3: Network
Specifies how addresses are assigned and how packets
are forwarded
Layer 4: Transport
Specifies how to handle details of reliable transfer
The Seven Layers (Cont.)
Layer 5: Session
Specifies how to establish a communication session with a
remote system
Ex: Security details
Layer 6: Presentation
Specifies how to represent data
Needed to translate from the representation on one
computer to another
Layer 7: Application
Specifies how one particular application uses the network
Ex: specifications for an application that transfers files
Stacks : Layered Software
When protocol
software sends or
receives data, each
module only
communicates with
the next highest
and lowest level
Incoming and
outgoing data
passes through
each layer
Stacks : Layered Software (Cont.)
Vendors use the word stack to refer to protocol
software
Software in the given layer on the sending
computer adds information to outgoing data
Software in the same layer on receiving computer
uses the additional information to process incoming
data

Stacks are
incompatible
Multiple, Nested Headers
Each layer places additional information in a
header before sending data to a lower layer
The header corresponding to the lowest-level
protocol occurs first
Scientific Basis for Layering
Layering principle
Layer N software on
the destination
computer must receive
the exact message
sent by layer N
software on the
sending computer
Whatever
transformation a
protocol applies
before sending a
frame must be
completely reversed
when the frame is
received
Techniques Protocols Use
Sequencing for Out-of-order Delivery
Connectionless networks often deliver packets
out of order
To handle this transfer protocol use sequencing
Each packet has a sequence number
Sequencing to Eliminate Duplicate Packets
Malfunctioning hardware causes packet
duplication
Ex: a transceiver using CSMA/CD
Sequencing solves the problem of duplication
Techniques Protocols Use (Cont.)
Retransmit ting Lost Packets
Protocols use positive acknowledgement with
retransmission
Protocol software uses a timer
Protocols bound the maximum number of retransmissions
Avoiding Replay Caused by Excessive Delay
Replay means that an old, delayed packet affects later
communication
A correct packet may be discarded as a duplicate
Protocols mark each session with a unique ID
Techniques Protocols Use (Cont.)
Flow Control to Prevent Data Overrun
Data overrun : A computer sends data faster than
the destination can absorb
Flow control techniques

4 – packet
Window

Stop-and-go
Sliding Window
Flow control
Techniques Protocols Use (Cont.)
Mechanisms to Avoid Net Congestion
Congestion : More packets arrive than can be send
The queue grows and the effective delay increases
Congestion collapse
Persistent congestion causes the entire network to become unusable
Protocols avoid congestion collapse by
Arranging for packet switches to inform senders when congestion
occurs
Use packet loss as as estimate of congestion

Congestion
prone network
Packet Switches