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Fundamentals of Geotechnical
Engineering & Surveying
(not just dirt and numbers!)

Dr Phil Collins
philip.collins@brunel.ac.uk
HWLL253
Twitter: philcollins_UK
 If you need to contact me:
Email is probably best, but format emails
professionally
• Use your Brunel account
• Subject line
• Write clearly (not text speak) and concisely
• Make sure you include your name (and ideally
student number)
• Check you don’t already have access to the
information e.g. in study guides
• Check if you can work out the answer first
• Be patient (and tolerant!)
Golden rule for emails, documents, social
media and even coursework:
would it stand up in court as being
clear, fair and accurate?(!)
 Some important concepts
HAZARD PROBABILITY SEVERITY
Type Vulnerability
Location Exposure
Magnitude Impact

RISK =
SEVERITY x PROBABILITY
Principles of surveying

Phil Collins
 Why survey?
• Time consuming
• Expensive
•
• ?
Difficult
Dangerous(?)
• [Boring(?!)]
 What a survey is for…
• Discover what is present
• Describe what is present
• Monitor changes

• Provide framework for design

• Provide the first step in construction
• Provide checks during & after construction
 Precision and accuracy

What do these terms mean?

• Accuracy – how close the
description/ measurement is
to reality

• Precision – how closely the

results of a measurement
are grouped
 Types of ‘survey’
• Quantitative – ‘facts and figures’

• Qualitative - perceptions

Both types involve subjectivity and bias:

•What do you survey?
•When?
•How?
•What degree of error is acceptable?
 Key elements of surveying
(before you can get started)

• Know where you are

• Clarify purpose of survey
• Be equipped to measure (as appropriate):
– Elevation
– Distance
– Horizontal and vertical angles
• Be ready to encounter and deal with
errors
?
 How could you measure
elevation?
• Tape measure – ok for vertical sequences , not
ok for distant points

• Barometer (air pressure) – fast but problematic

• Trigonometry – potentially v.good (but is it

always practical?)
 Levelling
• Direct measurement of difference in
elevation between two points
• Do not need to measure distance
• Requires:
– Tripod – a sturdy platform
– Level (an instrument that allows you to
see along / project a plane surface)
– Staff – a big ruler!
But DON’T call it a ruler!!!
 Theory - The ‘level line’
• A projected (‘imaginary’) surface parallel
to a datum (reference) surface
• Different from a horizontal line (a tangent)

Level
line

Datum
 Key points about the level surface
• It is just a reference surface
• All points on it are an equal height
above/below datum
• Points on the earth’s real surface can be
measured in terms of how far they are
above or below the level surface
• This means differences in elevation can be
determined
 Differential levelling

Difference in elevation Dh = b-f

Merry, 1998
 The level instrument
Cross-hairs Telescope Objective lens

Collimation axis

Circular
levelling
bubble Levelling
screws

Tripod
 Key points about the level
• Projects an imaginary, planar surface

• This surface is only ‘horizontal’ if the level

is correctly set up

• The projected surface is not truly parallel

to the datum except at the level
 The levelling staff (or rod)
• Essentially a big ruler (but don’t call it that!)
• Zero (0) is at the bottom

• Can be single piece or extendable (folding or

telescopic)

• Needs to be light (wood, aluminium,

fibreglass) and tough
Examples of
staff graduation
marks
•Be clear where each
cm starts
•Normally work to
nearest cm
•Be careful to check
metres

Kavanagh 2006, fig 3.10

 Using the staff
• Key is to hold it vertically and facing the
level when a reading is taken
– Some have a circular bubble level
– Can slowly rock back and forth (lowest
reading is true)
• Base must be flat

• Beware soft surfaces, high winds

and electricity cables!
 Levelling terminology
• BM = benchmark (permanent)
• TBM = temporary benchmark
• Station = location of instrument
• TP = turning point in a traverse used to transfer
an elevation
• BS = backsight to BM/TBM
• FS = foresight to next TP, BM/TBM
• IS = intermediate sight to other points
• HI = height of instrument (collimation)
• Reduced level = new calculated elevation
 Should be 1.30

?
?

Check sum: (Original elevation + SBS) – SFS = final elevation ?

(48.13 + 6.64) – 11.16 = 43.91
 Sources of error
• What could go wrong with the level?

• Level equipment is broken/ needs calibration

• Level equipment is set up incorrectly
– Bubble not centred (keep checking!)
– Level settles on soft ground
• Parallax – when focus is incorrect
• Heat waves/ shimmer
• Wind esp if tripod is not secure
 Sources of error
• What could go wrong with using the staff?
• Errors on the staff
• Misreading staff
• Not fully extended – missing section
• Not vertical
• Settling in soft ground
• Mud/snow/ice stuck on bottom of staff
• BS/FS not equal lengths (Collimation error)
• Earth curvature effect – problem for
distant/precise surveys) Etc……
 Other errors
• Incorrect transcription
– (e.g. 2.68 instead of 2.86)
• Confusing rise with fall
• Arithmetic mistakes

• Most common when inexperienced,

complacent, cold, hungry, ill, in the dark

• Also – is the benchmark OK? Secure

position?
 Ways to reduce/avoid errors
include…
• Learn how to use the kit properly
• Concentrate
• Make notes of rises and falls/sketch site
and cross-check data
• Regularly check equipment
• Arithmetic check
• ‘Close’ level circuit to a BM (or TBM)

• AND…Be prepared to resurvey if

necessary 
 Key point: Health & Safety!!
• Surveying can present risks e.g.
– Dangerous ground/slopes
– Water

!
– Power lines
– Pollution
– Disease
– People
– Cars/transport
This is NOT a complete list
 Final points
• Carefully identify what information is
needed for design solution
• Know what a particular technique can tell
you (and what it cannot tell you)
• Recognise uncertainty and error
• Apply techniques correctly
• Record data correctly

• Keep safe!
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning
Image source
 Design challenge
• Coastal plain site in Greece
• History of floods (river, storm)
• History of geological hazards (earthquake,
landslides, subsidence)
• Existing buildings / infrastructure
• Expanding population & economy
What could / should be done?
What do you need to know?
How do you get this information?