INTRODUCTION OF

CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
1. Physical chemistry is the application of physics to macroscopic,
microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical
systems within the field of chemistry traditionally using the principles,
practices and concepts of thermodynamics, quantum chemistry,
statistical mechanics and kinetics.

1. It is mostly defined as a large field of chemistry, in which, several sub-

concepts are applied; the inclusion of quantum mechanics is used to
illustrate the application of physical chemistry to atomic and particulate
chemical interaction or experimentation.
3. The contents of physical chemistry:

• Matter
• Solid, liquid and gas
• Electronic structure of atoms
• Periodic time
• Chemical bonding: Intramolcular and intermolecular
forces
• Shapes of molecules and ions
• Reaction kinetic
• Chemical, ionic and phase equillibrium
• Electrochemistry
• Thermochemistry
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within
chemistry which involves the scientific study of the
structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of
chemical compounds consisting of primarily carbon and
hydrogen, which may contain any number of other
elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, halogens as well
as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur.
2. Content of Organic Chemistry

• Introduction of carbon chemistry: Functional

group, Isomers, Nucleophiles and electrophiles.
• Alkane, alkene, benzene, haloalkanes, alcohol, ether,
phenol, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid and its
derivatives, amines, amino acids and protein,
polymers.
• Synthesis, conversion, chemistry differentiation and
reaction mechanisms.
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with
the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field
covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds
(compounds containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of
organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is
far from absolute, and there is much overlap, most importantly in
the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
2. inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds
based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses on the
position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element
with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by
grouping compounds by their structural similarities. When
studying inorganic compounds, one often encounters parts of the
different classes of inorganic chemistry (an organometallic
compound is characterized by its coordination chemistry, and may
show interesting solid state properties).
3. Content of Inorganic Chemistry

• Group 2
• Period 3
• Group 13: Aluminium
• Group 14: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
• Group 15: Nitrogen and its compounds
• Group 17: Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine
• Chemistry of transition metal: d-block
Chemistry Test: 1
Construct the chemical formulae of the compound:
a) Calcium Carbonate
b) Potassium sulphate
c) Aluminum hydroxide
d) Lead (II) iodide
e) Iron (III) bromide
f) Ammonium phosphate
g) Sodium nitrate
Write chemical equations for the following reactions:

a) Ferum + Oxygen  Ferum (III) oxide

b) Aluminum + Lead (II) oxide  Aluminum oxide + Lead
c) Sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid  Sodium sulphate +
Water
d) Potassium carbonate + Nitric acid  Potassium nitrate +
water + carbon dioxide
e) Lead (II) nitrate + potassium sulphate  lead sulphate +
potassium nitrate.
 CHAPTER 1: Matter
1. What is matter?

1. Answer: Matter is anything that have mass and

occupy space
2. What makes up matter?

2. Answer: Particles make up matter.

3. How many types of particles? List them out.

3. Answer: 3 types. They are, atom, molecules and

ions
 4. Characterize atom, molecule and ion.

Particles Properties Examples

Atom The simplest particle that does All metals, noble
not contain any charge gas and carbon
Molecule Particle that contains more that Elements: O2, H2,
one atoms of the same type or N2, F2, Cl2, Br2,
different types of atoms. I2, S8, P4
Molecule would not ionize/
Compounds: H2O,
dissociate in aqueous solution.
Thus it does not carry any Organic
charge. molecules,
hydrocarbon…
Ions Particle that consists of cation Salt, Acid and
and anion. It dissociate in base…
aqueous solution
 A+B

C
Atomic Structure
Subatom Relative Charge Electrical field Magnetic field
Mass
Proton 1 +ve Towards –ve terminal Delected

Electron 1/1840 -ve Towards +ve terminal Deflected

Neutron 1 neutral straight No deflection

The atom

1. Proton number: number of proton in the nucleus of

an atom.
2. Nucleon number: total number of protons and
neutron in the nucleus of an atom.
3. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to
the number of electrons.
Practice:
Determine number of protons, electrons and neutrons
in the following series:

a) Mg b) Cu c) S 2- d) Ca 2+ e) O 2-
Isotopes

1. Definition: Atoms of the same elements that …

a) Have same proton number but different nucleon
number.
b) Have same number of proton but different number of
neutrons
Examples:
a) H-1, H-2, H-3 [Hydrogen, deuterium, Tritium].
b) Cl-35, Cl-37
c) Br-79, Br-81
d) U-235, U-238
Questions:
 The following are some of properties of isotopes. Of
these properties, which are shared by isotopes and
which are different among isotopes.
Proton Number Number of
neutrons
Number of electrons Mass
Electronic Density
configuration
Chemical properties Molecular speed
Chemistry Test 2
1. 25 cm3 of 0.2M phosphoric acid required 20 cm3 of 0.5 M sodium
hydroxide for complete neutralization.

a) Calculate the number of moles of phosphoric acid used.

b) Calculate the number of moles sodium hydroxide used.
c) Hence, write a chemical reaction.

2. Calculate number of atom in 1.6 g of oxygen gas.

3. 3KClO3(s)  2KCl (s)  3O2 (g)

Calculate the volume of oxygen gas released at s.t.p.when 0.5 g
KClO3 is heated.
[1 mol of gas occupy 22.4 dm3 at stp]
Isotopes Abundance

1. Some of the elements exists as mixture of two or more

occurring isotopes.
2. The percentage of each isotope in the mixture is called
isotopic abundance/ relative abundance
3. The relative abundance can be expressed in term of
relative, or percentage.
Examples:
Li-6 7.6% C-12 99% O-18 0.2%
Li-7 92.4% C-13 1% Mg-24 79.0%
B-10 20% O-16 99.7% Mg-25 10%
B-11 80% O-17 0.1% Mg-26 11%
Stable and unstable isotopes

1. The nucleus of stable isotope will not disintegrate/

dissociate/ decay spontaneously.

Isotope Abundance
H-1 99.9%
C-12 98.9%
O-16 99.7%
Cl-35, Cl-37 75.5%, 25.4%
Ca-40 96.9%
Br-79, Br-81 50.5%, 49.5%
Definition of Relative mass

1. Relative atomic mass: average mass of one atom of

the element relative to 1/12 times the mass of one
atom of C-12.
R.A.M. = average mass of an atom
1/12 x mass of one atom C-12
2. Relative Molecular Mass: the mass of one molecule
of the substance relative to 1/12 times the mass of
one atom of C-12

3. Relative formula mass: the mass of one formula

unit of the substance relative to 1/12 times the mass
of one atom of C-12.
Mass Spectrometer
A full diagram of a mass spectrometer

                                                                                                       
Operation: 5 steps
1. Vaporization of sample
2. Ionization
3. Acceleration
4. Deflection
5. Detection
1. Vaporization: A sample is vaporized into gas.
2. Ionization: Production of positive ion by bombardment of
high energy electron.
e + X  X+ + e +e
3. Acceleration: A potential negative electrical field is used to
accelerate the positive ions to high and constant speed.
4. Deflection: Separation of ions in the magnetic field:
a) For ion with same mass, ions with higher charge are
deflected more
b) For ion with the same charge, ions which are lighter are
deflected more.
5. Detection: a mass spectrum of value isotopic abundance
against m/e value is recorded.
Determination of R.A.M. from a mass spectrum

Ar = ah1 + bh2 + ch3

h1 + h 2 + h 3

The mass spectrum for zirconium

                                                                                          

The 5 peaks in the mass spectrum shows that there are 5 isotopes
of zirconium –
with relative isotopic masses of 90, 91, 92, 94 and 96 on the 12C scale.
 zirconium-90   51.5
zirconium-91   11.2
zirconium-92   17.1
zirconium-94   17.4
zirconium-96   2.8

The total mass of these 100 typical atoms would be

(51.5 x 90) + (11.2 x 91) + (17.1 x 92) + (17.4 x
94) + (2.8 x 96) = 9131.8
9131.8 / 100 = 91.3 (to 3 significant figures).
91.3 is the relative atomic mass of zirconium.
 Mg-24 79.0%
Mg-25 10.0%
Mg-26 11.0%
Si-28 92.2%
Si-29 4.7%
Si-30 3.1%
Cu-63 69.0%
Cu-65 31.0%

Find the R.A.M of Mg, Si and Cu

Determination of R.M.M. from a mass spectrum
Let's have another look at the mass spectrum for pentane:

                                                                                         

What causes the line at m/z = 29, 43, 57 and 72?

C4H9+ would be [CH3CH2CH2CH2]+, and this
would be produced by the following fragmentation:
                                                   
 
 The line at m/z = 43 can be worked out similarly.
                                                     

The line at m/z = 29 is typical of an ethyl ion, [CH3CH2]+:

                                                   
 

The other lines in the mass spectrum are more difficult to explain.
For example, lines with m/z values 1 or 2 less than one of
the easy lines are often due to loss of one or more hydrogen
atoms during the fragmentation process.
 The mass spectrum of pentan-3-one
                                                                                       

Name the fragmented ions of m/e =29, and 57

 Using mass spectra to distinguish between compounds
Suppose you had to suggest a way of distinguishing between
pentan-2-one and pentan-3-one using their mass spectra.

pentan-2-one   CH3COCH2CH2CH3
pentan-3-one   CH3CH2COCH2CH3

In the pentan-2-one case, there are two different ions like this:
[CH3CO]+
[COCH2CH2CH3]+
That would give you strong lines at m/z = 43 and 71.

With pentan-3-one, you would only get one ion of this kind:
[CH3CH2CO]+
In that case, you would get a strong line at 57.
You don't need to worry about the other lines in the spectra –
the 43, 57 and 71 lines give you plenty of difference between
the two.
The 43 and 71 lines are missing from
the pentan-3-one spectrum, and the 57 line is missing from
the pentan-2-one one.
 H O H H H

H- C- C- C- H H- C- C- C=O

H H H H

propanone propanal

State the main difference you expect to see between the

Mass spectrum of propanone and propanal
 Compounds containing bromine atoms
Bromine has two isotopes, 79Br and 81Br in an approximately 1:1 ratio
That means that a compound containing 1 bromine atom will have
two peaks in the molecular ion region, depending on which bromine isotope
the molecular ion contains.
Unlike compounds containing chlorine,
though, the two peaks will be very similar in height.
                                                                                        

The carbons and hydrogens add up to 29.

The M+ and M+2 peaks are therefore at m/z values given by:
29 + 79 = 108
29 + 81 = 110
The mole concept

1. Calculate the mass 1.505 x 10 23 atoms of sodium.

[Na=23]
A. 5.75 g
B. 11.5 g
C. 23 g
D. 34.5 g
2. Which of the following substances has the most
number of molecules? [O:16, H:1, N:14, C:12]

A. 16 g of oxygen
B. 2 g of hydrogen
C. 14 g of nitrogen
D. 44 g of carbon dioxide
3. How many chloride ions are there in 1.36 g of zinc
chloride ZnCl2 ?
[R.A.M: Zn:65, Cl:35.5; Avogadro Number: N.A.]

A. 0.01 x 1 x N.A.
B. 0.02 x 2 x N.A
C. 0.01 x 3 x N.A.
D. 0.01 x 2/3 x N.A.
4. A sample of carbon dioxide gas in a gas jar has the
same number of molecules as 8 g of oxygen gas. What
is the mass of the sample of carbon dioxide in the gas
jar? [O:16, C:12]

A. 5.5 g
B. 11 g
C. 22 g
D. 44 g
5. How many moles of magnesium contains three times
more atoms than those found in 20 g of oxygen gas?

A. 0.0625 mol
B. 1.25 mol
C. 2.5 mol
D. 3.75 mol
6. Which of the following has the least number of atoms?

A. 2 g helium
B. 16 g of oxygen
C. 2 g of hydrogen
D. 148 g of nitrogen
7. A sample of a substance contains 0.5 g of hydrogen, 8 g
of sulphur and 16 g of oxygen. Find the empirical
formula of the substance.

8. 2.76 g of element Q combines with 0.96 g of oxygen to

form a compound with an empirical formula of Q2O.
Find the RAM of Q.

A. 11.5
B. 23
C. 34.5
D. 46
9.
2Al + 3CuO  Al2O3 + 3Cu

Find the mass of aluminum required to react completely

with 24 g copper (II) oxide.

A. 2.7 g
B. 5.4 g
C. 8.1 g
D. 10.8 g
10. 4 g of calcium burns completely in air to form calcium
oxide. Find the mass of calcium oxide produced.

A. 1.6 g
B. 4.0 g
C. 5.6 g
D. 22.4 g