Unit anatomi dan fisiologi

KOLEJ SAINS KESIHATAN BERSEKUTU

JOHOR BAHRU
Di akhir sesi pembelajaran, pelajar dapat
1. Menyenaraikan komponen utama sistem
saraf
2. Menerangkan struktur dan fungsi sistem
saraf
3. Menerangkan anatomi sistem saraf
4. Menerangkan ciri-ciri histologi & fungsi
neuroglia & neuron
5. Menerangkan fisiologi impuls saraf
 Sistem saraf - sistem yg kawal & hubungkan
sistem lain dlm badan
 Bertanggungjawab pada semua aktiviti dlm
badan
 Bertanggungjawab utk kawal & tetapkan
homeostasis badan beserta sistem endokrin
 Sel-sel sistem saraf berhubung dgn
menggunakan signal elektrik
 Otak
 Saraf kranium dan cabang-cabangnya
 Korda spina
 Saraf spina dan cabang-cabangnya
 Ganglia
 Pleksus enterik
 Reseptor sensori
 3 fungsi yg bertindih :
◦ Kumpul input sensori
◦ Integrasi & interpretasi maklumat sensori
◦ Hasilkan tindakbalas @ output motor
1) Input sensori
◦ berjuta2 resepor sensori utk kenalpasti
perubahan internal & eksternal badan
2) Integratif
◦ proses & nilai input sensori seterusnya
putuskan perkara yg perlu dilakukan
pada setiap ketika
3) Output motor
◦ hasilkan tindakbalas dgn aktifkan
organ2 (otot & kelenjar)
 SISTEM SARAF

Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System

Autonomic Somatic Nervous Brain Spinal Cord

Nervous System System

Diencephalon Cerebellum Brain stem

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous System Nervous System
Thalamus Midbrain
Hypothalamus medula
Pons
Epithalamus Medulla Oblongata

Cerebrum
 Terdiri drp tisu saraf yg padat dan berbelit
 Terdiri drp 2 jenis sel:
◦ Neuron
 sel konduktor yg membawa isyarat elektrik
 terlibat sbg saraf deria, pemakanan, ingatan, tindakan
otot, rembesan kelenjar

◦ Neuroglia
 sel bukan kondukter yg menyelaputi neuron
 bertindak sbg penyokong, bekalkan zat, & lindungi
neuron
 Merupakan unit berfungsi bagi sistem saraf
 Fungsi :
1. Initiate (memulakan) nerve impulses

2. Bertindak sebagai ‘relay station’ di mana impulses

dihantar ke neurones lain (transmit impulses)
 Apb termusnah, neuron tdk boleh diganti krn tak menjalani
mitosis
 Setiap neuron terdiri drp:
 Cell body
 Dendrit (1@lbh)
 Axon
 Neuron tidak boleh membahagi (tidak bermitosis)
 Ia perlukan bekalan oxygen dan glucose yang
berterusan
 Neuron hanya boleh mensintesis tenaga kimia ATP
daripada glucose sahaja.
 Neuron mempunyai ciri-ciri
◦ Irritability - kebolehan untuk memulakan
impulses
◦ Conductivity - kebolehan untuk transmit
impulses
 Typical neuron
consists 3 parts:
1. Cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
Cell body
 Also known as a
perikaryon @ soma
 Contain nucleus
surrounded by
cytoplasm
 Contain typical
cellular organelles.
Cell Body
 Cell bodies within the central nervous
system are frequently cluster into region
called nuclei.
 Cell bodies in the peripheral nervous
system occur in cluster called ganglia.
 Cell bodies membentuk grey matter dalam nervous system
◦ terdapat di periphery of brain
◦ di centre of spinal cord
 Axons dan dendrite adalah sambungan dari cell bodies
 Ia membentuk white matter dalam nervous system.

Brain Spinal Cord

Dendrites
 Processes emerging from
the cell body.
 Receiving or input
portion of a neuron.
 In many neurons its form
a tree shaped array of
processing extending
from the cell body.
 Cytoplasm contain
typical organelles.
3) Akson
 Kurus & panjang
berbentuk silinder
 Stp neuron ada 1
akson
 Fungsi : merupakan
pencetus &
pembawa isyarat dr
cell body ke neuron
lain
 Axons terletak di bahagian dalam brain
 Kumpulan axon dikenali sebagai tracts, di
CNS
 Axons dirujuk sebagai nerves atau nerve
fibres di luar brain dan spinal cord.
 Axon biasanya lebih panjang daripada
dendrite
 kadang kala sepanjang 100 cm.
 Membrane axon
dipanggil axolemma
 Ia mengelilingi
cytoplasma yang
dipanggil axoplasma
 Axon yang besar dan
saraf peripheral
dikelilingi oleh satu
lapisan yang dipanggil
myelin sheath
 Myelin sheath terdiri
daripada satu siri Sel
Schwann yang
tersusun sepanjang
axon.
 Setiap satu Schwann
cell membaluti axon
Figure 4.3: Nerve fibres. A. Myelinated. B. Non-myelinated
 Lapisan luar sel Schwann juga
dikenali sebagai neurilemma
 Bahagian kecil yang
mendedahkan axolemma dan
Schwann cell yang
berdekatan, disebut nodes of
Ranvier
 Ia membantu dalam transmisi
impuls saraf yang cepat di
myelinated neurones.
 Hujung akson
mengandungi cuaran
halus dinamakan
terminal akson
 Hujung terminal akson
terdapat struktur
kembang dinamakan
bulba sinaps
 Dlm bulba sinaps, ada
neurotransmiter (bawa
impuls saraf korda dari
jasad sel ke neuron lain)
 Fungsi

 Struktur
Pengkelasan berdasarkan fungsi
 dikelaskan berdasarkan pergerakan impuls
yg menghala ke sistem saraf pusat
 3 jenis neuron berdasarkan fungsi:
◦ Neuron sensori (aferent)
◦ Neuron motor (eferent)
◦ Interneuron
 neuron aferen ini membentuk bahagian
sensori pd sistem saraf periferi

 bawa impuls kpd sistem saraf pusat

 neuron sensori mempunyai jasad sel yg

terkandung dlm ganglia di luar dari
sistem saraf pusat
 bawa impuls dr sistem saraf pusat kpd
organ efektor (otot@kelenjar)

 neuron motor bahagian atas terletak di

otak

 neuron motor bahagian bawah terletak

dlm sistem saraf periferi
 Jasad selnya terletak dlm sistem saraf pusat
(kecuali pd autonomik)

 membentuk jalinan dgn sel efektor (isyarat

pd otot utk mengecut @ kelenjar utk
merembes)
 3) Neuron Interneuron
 terletak di antara neuron motor & neuron
sensori
 membentuk laluan neuron yg kompleks
 membentuk 99.9% neuron dlm badan
 cuarannya mempunyai saiz & cabang yg
pelbagai
Contoh neuron interneuron
 sel Pyramidal merupakan
neuron terbesar yg dijumpai
pd cerebrum
 sel Purkinje berada di
cerebellum
Berdasarkan struktur:

 Multipolar

 Bipolar

 unipolar
 Several dendrites
 One axon
 Most neuron in the
brain and spinal
cord are of this type.
 Have one main dendrite
 One axon
 Found in the retina of the eye, in the inner
ear and in the olfactory area of the brain.
 Have one dendrite and one axon
that are fused together to form a
continuous process that emerges
from the cell body.
 The dendrite of most unipolar
neurons functions as a sensory
receptors that detect a stimulus
such as touch, pressure, pain or
thermal stimuli.
 Cell bodies of most unipolar
neurons are located in the ganglia
of spinal and cranial nerves.
 Merupakan sel penyokong kpd neuron
 Dikenali sbg glia
 Mengawal aktiviti elektrik yg terhasil pd neuron spy tidak
mengganggu antara 1 sama lain
◦ Neroglia/sel penyokong pd sistem saraf pusat:
 Astrosit
 Mikroglia
 Sel ependimal
 Oligodendrosit
◦ Neroglia/sel penyokong pd sistem saraf periferi:
 Sel Schwann
 Sel Satellite
 mempunyai cuaran yg bercabang spt
neuron
 dibezakan dgn neuron berdasarkan saiz
yg lebih kecil dan warna nukleus yg lbh
gelap slps teknik pewarnaan
 membentuk separuh dr jisim otak
 membahagi sepanjang kehidupan
 berbentuk bintang
 merupakan sel glial yg terbanyak
 menyambungkan neuron & kapilari
 Fungsi :
◦ tukar ion di antara kapilari & neuron
◦ bebaskan neurotransmiter
◦ ekstrak gula dari kapilari darah utk dapatkan tenaga
◦ terlibat dlm pembentukan tisu saraf
◦ cetuskan signal kalsium yg terlibat dlm ingatan
 sel neuroglial terkecil, bilangan yg sedikit
 merupakan sel yg memanjang dgn cuaran yg berduri
 ia merupakan fagosit, menjadi makrofaj kpd sistem
saraf pusat
 melapisi kaviti tengah saraf tunjang & ventrikel pada
otak
 membentuk membran telap di antara cecair
serebrospinal & sel2 sistem saraf pusat
 mempunyai silia – bantu pengaliran cecair serebrospinal
 kurang cabang
berbanding astrosit
 hasilkan karung pd
gentian saraf
dikenali karung
myelin pada sistem
saraf pusat
 2 sel penyokong pada sistem saraf periferi
◦ Sel Satellite
◦ Sel Schwann

 Sel2 ini serupa bentuknya cuma berbeza

tempat
 menyelaputi sel badan di ganglia
 kawal persekitaran kimia pada neuron
 selaputi gentian saraf besar pada sistem saraf periferi
membentuk karung myelin
 sama spt oligodendrosit pada sistem saraf pusat
 penting terhadap penghasilan semula gentian saraf
periferal
 Karung myelin dihasilkan olh:
◦ sel Schwann (pada sistem saraf periferi)
◦ oligodendrosit (pada sistem saraf pusat)

 mempunyai struktur bersegmen, stp 1 terdiri drp

myelin lipoprotein yg menyelaputi akson
 Fungsi karung myelin
◦ Sarung akson (halang kebocoran arus elektrik)
◦ Tingkatkan kelajuan semasa konduksi impuls
◦ Menjimatkan tenaga semasa pencetusan saraf
terhasil
Physiology of
neuron
 Neurons are electrically excitable.
 They communicate each other using two types of
electrical signals:

1. Graded potentials
- used for short distance communication
2. Action potentials
- used for long distance communication

 The production of graded and action potential is

depends on basic features of plasma membrane of
excitable cells:
1. Existence of resting membrane potentials
2. Presence of specific ion channels
 RMP is the cell membrane of a non-
conduction or in the resting state.
 The difference in charges on the two sides of
the resting membrane is called the RMP.
 This potentials is about – 70 milivolts (mV)
 Transmission of the impulses and action potential
due to movement of ion across the nervous cell
membrane.
 In the resting state the nerve cell membrane is
polarised due to different concentration of ion
across the plasma membrane.
 This condition is called resting membrane potential.
 Conduction of nerve impulses
 Resting membrane potential:
◦ Sodium the main extracellular cation.
◦ Potassium the main intracellular cation.
 Conduction of nerve impulses
 When stimulated, the permeability of the nerve cell
membrane to this ion change.

 Sodium flood into the neuron from ECF causing

depolarisation, creating a nerve impuls @ action
potential.

 Depolarisation is very rapid.

 Its passes from the point of stimulation in one

direction only.(away from the point towards the
area of resting membrane potential)
 DEPOLARIZATION
 During this process, potassium floods out of
the neuron cell.
 Depolarization results because inward
diffusion of sodium is much greater than a
outward diffusion of potassium
 REPOLARISATION
◦ Voltage gated Na+ channels are closed.
◦ Voltage gated channel K+ are open.
◦ Sodium ion diffusion into the cell stops and K+
diffuse out of the cell, causing repolarisation.
 Resting membrane potential is reestablish after the
voltage gated K+ channels closed.
 Definition
◦ The site of communication between 2 neurons or
between neuron and effector cells (muscles or
glands).

 The tips of some axon terminals swell into

bulb shaped structures called synaptic end
bulbs.

 Synaptic end bulbs contain many tiny

membrane-enclosed sacs called synaptic
vesicles that store a chemical called
neurontransmitter.
 The site of communication between 2 neurons or
between neuron and effector cells (muscles or glands).
 Neuron sending the signal is called the presynaptic
neuron.
 Neuron receiving the message is called the
postsynaptic neuron.
 2 types of synapse:
 Electrical synapse
◦ Action potential conducts directly between adjacent
cells through structures called gap junction.
 Chemical synapse
◦ Presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron separated by
synaptic cleft.
 Although the plasma membrane of presynaptic and
postsynaptic neuron in a chemical synapse are close,
they do not touch.

 The synaptic cleft, a space of 20-50 nm that is filled

with interstitial fluid, separated the two neurons.

 The presynaptic neuron converts an electrical signal

(nerve impuls) into a chemical signal (release
neurontransmitter).

 The postsynaptic neuron receives the chemical signal

and generate an electrical signal (postsynaptic potential).
A typical chemical synapse transmits a signal as
follows:
1. A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a
presynaptic axon.

2. The depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens

voltage gated Ca2+ channels, which are present in
the membrane of synaptic end bulbs.

3. Increase [Ca2+] inside the presynatic neuron is the

triggers exocytosis of some of the synaptic vesicles.
As vesicles membrane merge with the plasma
membrane, neorontransmitter molecules released
into the synaptic cleft.
 SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AT SYNAPSES
4. The neurontrasmitter molecule diffuse
across the synaptic cleft and bind to
neurontransmitter receptor in the
postsynaptic neuron plasma membrane.

5. Binding of neurontransmitter molecules to

their receptor on ligand-gated channels
opens the channels and allow particular ions
to flow across the membrane.
6. As ions flow through the opened channels,
the voltage across the membrane changes.
This change in membrane voltage is a
postsynaptic potential.

7. When a depolarizing postsynaptic potential

reaches threshold, it triggers one ore more
nerve impulse.
 SYNAPSE

Action potential dihantar Impulse melintasi Action potential di hasilkan

seterusnya melalui axon synaptic cleft dan dihantar melalui axon
kedua
Synaptic
cleft
neurotransmitter
tenaga elektrik
tenaga kimia tenaga elektrik

Transmission impulse di nervous system melintasi synaptic cleft adalah melalui proses
transduction tenaga elektik kepada kimia dan sebaliknya
Mechanisme of Synaptic Transmission
Action potential sampai
ke hujung presynaptic
1 neurone
PRESYNAPTIC
NEURONE Presynaptic membrane
2 telap kepada calcium
yang masuk neurone

Vesicle mengalami
3 exocytosis

Neurotransmitter masuk
Ca 4 synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter
bergabung dengan post
5 synaptic receptor
POST SYNAPTIC NEURONE
Action potential
6 dihasilkan di post
synaptic membrane
Neurotransmitter dinyahaktifkan
7 atau diambil semula oleh vesicle
 Neurotransmitter disintesis oleh nerve cells,
ditransport secara active sepanjang axons
dan disimpan di dalam synaptic vesicles.
 Neurotransmitter dirembeskan melalui
exocytosis akibat tindak balas terhadap
action potential dan diresap ke dalam
synaptic cleft.
 Ia bertindak ke atas specific receptor site di
atas postsynaptic membrane
 Tindakan neurotransmitter adalah singkat
kerana selepas memberi rangsangan kepada
postsynaptic neurone / effector organ,
seperti muscle fibre, ia akan inactivated oleh
enzymes atau diambil balik ke dalam synaptic
knob.
 Kebanyakan neurotransmitter memberi
excitatory effect kepada synapse tetapi
sesetengahnya memberi inhibitory effect.
 Neurotransmitter dalam brain dan spinal
cord termasuklah noradrenaline, adrenaline,
dopamine, histamine, serotonin, gamma
aminobutyric acid (GABA) dan acetylcholine.
 Substance lain seperti enkephalins,
endorphins dan substance P mempunyai
peranan khas contohnya transmission pain
signals
Disingkirkan melalui:
 Diffusion

 Enzymatic degradation

 Uptake by cell