Nutrition, Metabolism, and

Body Temperature Regulation

 P.906 ATP – stored chemical energy
form used by cells
 P.906 Kilocalories (kcal) or “large
calories (C),” – measurement of energy
heat energy needed to raise the
temvalue of foods; 1 kcal is the
amount perature of 1 kg of water to
1o C
Nutrition
 Nutrient – a substance in food that is
used by the body to promote growth,
maintenance, and repair
 Major nutrients – carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids; also water
 Minor nutrients – vitamins and
minerals
 Grains, fruits, vegetables, meat and
fish, and milk products contain
adequate amounts of all the needed
nutrients

 Essential nutrients – cannot be made by

the body , must be in the diet
Carbohydrates
 P.908 All the carbohydrates we eat are
from plants, except milk sugar (lactose)
and small amount of glycogen in meats
 Monosaccharides and disaccharides
come from fruits, sugars and milk
 Polysaccharides starch found in grains
 Cellulose, a polysaccharides in plenty
vegetables, not digested by humans
Uses in the Bodty
 Glucose, the monosaccharide, used by
body cells; is the major body fuel and is
readily used to make ATP
 Fructose and galactose, the other
monosaccharides are converted to
glucose by the liver before they enter
the general circulation
 Requirements – 200 to 300 g
Lipids
 Neutral fats or triglycerides – most
abundant dietary lipids; saturated in
animal products, unsaturated in nuts
 Fats are digested to fatty acids and
monoglycerides and then reconverted
to triglycerides for transport in lymph
 Cholesterol – egg yolk, meats etc
Uses in the Body
 Helps to absorb fat soluble vitamins
 Phospholipids – cellular membrane
 Protective Cushion around body organs
 Insulating layer beneath the skin
 Concentrated source of energy fuel
 Make prostaglandins from linoleic acid
via arachidonic acid
 P.910 Cholesterol is not used for
energy; components of plasma
membrane, precursor of bile salts,
vitamin D, steroid hormones
 Fats represent over 40% of the calories
in the American diet
 AHA suggests 30% or less; saturated
fats 10% or less; cholesterol <200mg
Proteins
 Animal products are high quality
proteins, because essential amino acids
are in great amounts and best ratios;
are complete proteins that meet all the
body’s amino acid requirements
 Legume and cereals are incomplete
proteins, because they are low in one or
more of the essential amino acids
 Diets of all cultures have cereals with
beans
 All-or-none rule –
 Nitrogen balance –
 Hormonal controls –
 P.911 Daily intake 0.8 g per kg of body
weight
Vitamins
 Organic compounds needed in minute
amounts for growth and good health
 Not used for energy
 Do not serve as building blocks
 Crucial for the use of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats
 Functions as coenzymes
 P.912 Fat soluble vitamins – A,D,E & K
 Water soluble vitamins – B’s, and C
 All B-vitamins found in G & G; function
as coenzymes
 FAD contains riboflavin (B2)
 NAD contains niacin
 Coenzyme A contains Pantothenic acid
Minerals
 P.913 Major minerals – Ca, P, Mg,
Na, K, Cl
 Trace minerals – Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, I
 Makes 4% of body weight; Ca and P
account ¾ of the amount
 Not used as fuel
 Serves as cofactor
Metabolism
 All chemical reactions that take place in
the body
 Anabolism – larger molecules are built
from smaller molecules
 Catabolism – breakdown of big
molecules to smaller ones
 Cellular respiration – catabolic
reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
P.915 Oxidation – is the gain of oxygen
or the loss of hydrogen or electrons
 Reduction – is the loss of oxygen or the
gain of hydrogen or electrons
 P.916 Oxidation-reduction reactions or
redox reactions -
 Dehydrogenases and Oxidases -
 NAD+ and FAD - two important
coenzymes of the oxidative pathway
 Pyruvic acid to lactic acid & vice versa
 Mechanism of ATP Synthesis -Two ways
 Substrate-level phosphorylation –
 P.917 Oxidative phosphorylation –
 Chemiosmotic process -
Carbohydrate Metabolism
 Glucose enters the tissue cells by
facilitated diffusion, that is greatly
enhanced by insulin
 Upon entry into the cell, glucose is
phosphorylated to glucose -6-phosphate
 Glucose + ATP – glucose-6-PO4 + ADP
Oxidation of Glucose
 P.918 Glucose is the main fuel in the
oxidative (ATP-producing) pathways.
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O + 6CO2 +
36 ATP + heat
1. Glycolysis –
2. Formation of acetylCoA –
3. Krebs cycle –
4. Electron transport chain -
 Glycolysis – glucose to two pyruvic
acid; occurs in the cytosol of cells
 Glycolysis is an anaerobic process; does
not use oxygen and occurs whether or
not O2 is present
 P.919 Final products – two pyruvic
acid, two reduced NAD+ (NADH + H+),
and a net gain of two ATP
 The fate of pyruvic acid, which still
contains most of glucose’s chemical
energy, depends on the availability of
O2 at the time pyruvic acid is produced
 In absence of O2, pyruvic acid is
reduced to lactic acid by the addition of
two H+ atoms from NADH + H+
 When O2 is available, lactic acid is
oxidized back to pyruvic acid and enters
the aerobic pathways
 After pyruvic acid enters the
mitochondria, converts it to acetylCoA
 Three steps – decarboxylation;
oxidation; and acetyl coenzyme A
 Krebs cycle – named after its
discoverer Hans Krebs
 Upon entering into Krebs cycle
AcetylCoA is completely broken down
 Coenzyme A shuttles the 2-carbon
acetic acid combines with 4-carbon
oxaloacetic acid makes 6-C citric acid;
another name is citric acid cycle
Electron Transport Chain and
Oxidative Phosphorylation
 P.920 Like glycolysis, none of the
reactions of the Krebs cycle use oxygen
directly. It is the exclusive function of
electron transport chain
 Hydrogens removed oxidation of food
fuels are combined with oxygen, and
the energy released is harnessed to
attach Pi groups to ADP
 This type of phosphorylation process is
called oxidative phosphorylation
 P.922 Enzyme is ATP synthase
 P.925 Glycogenesis – when glycolysis
is “turned off” by high ATP levels,
glucose are combined in long chains to
form glycogen, the storage form in
animals
 Glycogenolysis – when blood glucose
levels drop, glycogen lysis occurs
 Gluconeogenesis – when too little
glucose is available to stoke the
“metabolic furnace,” glycerol and amino
acids are converted to glucose, forming
new (neo) glucose from
noncarbohydrate source
Lipid Metabolism
 P.926 Fats are body’s most
concentrated source of energy
 Contains very little water
 Energy yield from fat catabolism is
twice that from either glucose or
protein catabolism – 9 kcal/gm fat
versus 4 kcal/gm of carbohydrate or
protein
Oxidation of Glycerol and
Fatty Acids
 Only neutral fats are routinely oxidized
for energy; glycerol and fatty acids
 Glycerol to glyceraldehyde phosphate, a
glycolysis intermediate that enters the
Krebs cycle
 Beta oxidation – fatty acid chains are
broken apart into two-carbon acetic
acid
 Each acetic acid molecule is fused to
coenzyme A, forming acetyl CoA
 Beta oxidation reflects the fact that the
carbon in the beta (third) position is
oxidized and cleavage occurs between
the alpha and beta carbons
 Acetyl CoA is then combine with
oxaloacetic acid and enters Krebs cycle
 Glycerol and fatty acids not immediately
needed for energy are recombined into
triglycerides and stored
 Lipogenesis – triglycerides synthesis
occurs when cellular ATP are high
 P.927 Lipolysis – breakdown of stored
fats into glycerol and fatty acids, is
essentially reverse of lipogenesis
 “Fats burn in the flame of
carbohydrates”
 When carbohydrates are deficient,
oxaloacetic acid is converted to glucose
(to fuel the brain)
 Without oxaloacetic acid fat oxidation is
incomplete, acetyl CoA accumulates, a
process called ketogenesis
 Liver converts acetyl CoA molecules to
ketones or ketone bodies, and
released into the blood
 When ketone bodies accumulate in the
blood, ketosis results and large amount
are excreted in the urine
 Occurs in starvation, diabetes mellitus
 Outcome of ketosis is metabolic acidosis
 The person’s breath smells fruity as
acetone vaporizes from the lungs
 Breathing becomes more rapid, tries to
reduce blood carbonic acid by blowing
off CO2 to force the blood pH up
Protein Metabolism
 P.928 Before amino acids can be
oxidized, it must be deaminated, that is,
amine group (NH2) must be removed

 The resulting is then converted to

pyruvic acid or to one of the keto acid
intermediates in the Krebs cycle
 P.929 Transamination - transfer of
amine group to alpha-ketoglutaric acid
 Oxidative deamination- Amine group
(NH2) is removed as ammonia (NH3)
 NH3 is toxic to body cells, combines with
CO2 yielding urea and water
 Urea is then released in the blood and
removed from the body in urine
Absorptive and Postabsorptive
States
 P.931 Absorptive state (fed state) –
shortly after eating, when nutrients are
flushing into the blood from the GI tract
 P.933 Postabsorptive state (fasting)-
GI tract is empty and energy is supplied
by the breakdown of body reserves
 Glucose is the major energy fuel
 Excess stored as glycogen
Cholesterol Transport
 P.936 Lipoproteins – Triglycerides
and cholesterol are insoluble in water,
do not circulate free in the blood,
transported to and from tissue cells
bound to small lipid-protein complexes
 Vary considerably in their relative fat-
protein composition
 Higher the percentage of fat, lower its
density; greater the proportion of
protein, higher its density
 On this basis, there are Chylomicrons,
HDLs, LDLs, and VLDLs
 Chylomicrons, transport absorbed lipids
from the GI tract
 LDLs transport cholesterol to peripheral
tissues, making it available for cell for
membrane, hormone synthesis, storage
for later use, are “bad” cholesterol
 HDLs transport excess cholesterol from
peripheral tissues to the liver, where it
is broken down and becomes part of
the bile, are “good” cholesterol
 P.938 Energy Balance –
 P.939 Obesity – a condition of excess
triglyceride storage, a body fat content
of more than 20% of body weight
 Regulation of Food Intake – Hunger
and satiety centers, located in the
hypothalamus
 P.940 Glucostatic and lipostatic theory –
 Elevated blood levels of glucose, lipids,
and amino acids depress eating
 P.941 Metabolic rate – body’s rate of
energy output
 Direct method by calorimeter –
 Indirect method by respirometer -
 Basal metabolic rate (BMR)– reflects
the energy body needs to perform vital
activities, eg. respiration, circulation etc
 To measure BMR, person in a
postabsorptive state, reclining, mentally
and physically relaxed, optimum temp.
 A 70-kg adult has a BMR of 66 kcal/hr
 Factors influencing BMR – body surface
area, age, gender, stress, & hormones
 Body surface area is the critical factor,
with same body weight, the taller and
thinner person will have high BMR
 Younger the person, higher the BMR
 In old age, BMR decreases dramatically
 Higher in males than in females
Factor in determining BMR
 The amount of thyroxine produced by
the thyroid gland is most important
factor in determining BMR, hence called
“metabolic hormone.”
 P.944 Body temperature regulation
–maintained within a normal range,
despite change in external (air) temp
Mechanism of Heat Exchange
 P.945 Radiation –
 Conduction –
 Convection –
 Evaporation –
 Insensible water and heat loss –
 Thermoregulatory centers – heat-
loss and heat-promoting centers
are located in hypothalamus
Heat-Promoting Mechanisms
 1. Constrictions of cutaneous vessels –
2. P.946 Shivering
 3. Increase in metabolic rate –
 4. Enhanced thyroxine release –
 P.947 Heat-Loss Mechanisms
 1. Dilation of cutaneous vessels –
 2. Enhanced sweating -
 P.948 Metabolic rate declines
throughout the life span
 Many elderly are also less active
 Elderly also use more medications than
any other group, liver has become less
efficient it its detoxifying duties