I.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Based on the assumption that human needs are
inexhaustible
• A satisfied need is no longer a motivator

• Maslow categorises the needs in ascending order –

physiological, security, affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation.

• Gradual emergence of higher-level/higher-order needs as lower-

level needs become more satisfied

• Relative importance of needs changes during the psychological

development of the individual
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.
 Theory X & theory Y (McGregor)

• Proposed two distinct views of human being Negative

(theory X) Positive (theory Y)
• Theory X (people are lazy, dislike work, wants to be
controlled, avoid responsibility, show little ambition)
• Theory Y (self motivated to do work, self-direction,
self-control, like work naturally, seek responsibility,
innovative decision)
 III. HERZBERG’S TWO-
FACTOR THEORY
Herzberg avoids using the word ‘need’ and maintains
that in any work situation, you can distinguish
between two sets of factors.
Hygiene factors
• features of the work environment which, if present, help avoid
dissatisfaction with work.
• concerned with job context e.g work environment, status,
company procedures, quality of supervision.
• Can be related roughly to Maslow’s lower-level needs.
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Ttheory

Motivators

• features of the job itself that people find enjoyable and

that have a motivational effect.
• Mainly intrinsic in nature e.g. sense of achievement,
recognition, responsibility.
• can be related to Maslow’s higher-level needs.
The Two Factor Theory of
Motivation
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
(cont’d)
• Motivation is a two-stage process:
– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not
blocking motivation.
– Providing employees the opportunity to experience increase
motivational factors through the use of job enrichment and
the redesign of jobs.

• Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory

– Interview findings are subject to different explanations.
– Sample population was not representative.
– Subsequent research has not upheld theory.
 II. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• Condenses Maslow’s model into three levels

• Based on core needs of existence, relatedness

and growth

• Individuals progress through the ERG needs

hierarchy though Alderfer suggests that it is a
continuum rather than a hierarchy
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• More than one need may be activated at the

same time.

• Individuals may progress down the hierarchy.

• If needs are blocked at one level then attention

will be focused on satisfaction of needs at other
levels.
 IV. McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION THEORY

• Need for affiliation – to interact with, and be liked

by, other people (nAff)

• Need for power – to control the activities of other

people (nPow)

• Need for achievement – to succeed or excel in areas

of significance to the person (nAch)
McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION THEORY

– People with a high need for achievement:

– have a major preoccupation with succeeding in
whatever they do
– prefer moderate task difficulty
– want personal and full responsibility for
performance
– like to receive clear and unambiguous feedback
– tend not to value money for itself but more as a
symbol of success.
 VI.VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY

• Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

 
Valence: value or strength of outcome or reward.
 
Expectancy: relates efforts to performance.
 
Instrumentality: the belief that performance is related to
rewards
 Expectancy Theory
• Motivation depends on how much we want something
and how likely we are to get it.
• Assumes that:
– Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and
environmental forces.
– People make decisions about their own behavior in
organizations.
– Different people have different types of needs, desires, and
goals.
– People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting
one that that leads to a desired outcome.
 Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
• Model of Motivation
– Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when
combined
with ability and environmental factors, that results
in performance which, in turn, leads to
various outcomes that have value
(valence) to employees.
The Expectancy Model of
Motivation
 VII. Porter-Lawler Extension of
Expectancy Theory
• Assumptions:
– If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair
rewards, people will be more satisfied.
• High performance can lead to rewards and high
satisfaction.
• Types of rewards:
– Extrinsic rewards—outcomes set and awarded by external parties
(e.g., pay and promotions).
– Intrinsic rewards—outcomes that are internal to the individual
(e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).
The Porter-Lawler Model
 Evaluation and Implications

•Research studies have confirmed:

– The association of both kinds of expectancies
and valences with performance and outcomes.
– That motivated behavior by people arises from
their valuing expected rewards, believing effort
will lead to performance, and that performance
will lead to desired rewards.
 Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
• Practical use of the theory by managers:
– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals.
– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
– Make sure the rewards are large enough.
– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
 VIII. Goal Setting Theory

• Assumptions
– Behavior is a result of conscious goals and
intentions.
– Setting goals influences the behavior of people in
organizations.
• Characteristics of Goals
– Goal difficulty
• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.
• Goals should be difficult but attainable.
• Characteristics of Goals (cont’d)
– Goal specificity
• Clarity and precision of the goal.
• Goals vary in their ability to be
stated specifically.
– Acceptance
• The extent to which persons
accept a goal as their own.
– Commitment
• The extent to which an individual is
personally interested in reaching a goal.
The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory
of Motivation

Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn/1979, copyright © 1979 by American Management
Association, New York. All rights reserved. (http://www.amanet.org)
 IX. The Equity Theory of
Motivation
•Equity Theory
– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in
organizations want to be treated fairly.
•Equity
– The belief that we are being
treated fairly in relation to others.
•Inequity
– The belief that we are being
treated unfairly in relation to others.
 Forming Equity Perceptions
Step 1
A
A person
person
evaluates
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he
or
or she
she is
is being
being Step 2
treated
treated byby the
the The
The person
person
firm.
firm. forms
forms aa
perception
perception of of
how
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“comparison
“comparison The
The person
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other”
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is compares
compares hishis
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treated. or
or her
her own
own Step 4
circumstances
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On the
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strength
with
with those
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of this
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the comparison
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the person
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People in organizations form other.
other. choose
choose to to
perceptions of the equity of pursue
pursue oneone or
or
more
more
their treatment through a four- alternatives.
alternatives.
step process.
The Equity Comparison Process
• Equity theory describes the equity comparison process
in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.

Outcomes (self) Outcomes (other)

compared with
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)
Responses to
Perceptions
of Equity
and Inequity