INTRODUCTION to

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
 Chapter 1
Introduction
 Analytical Chemistry deals with methods
for determining the chemical composition of
samples.
• Qualitative Analysis (identification)
provides information about the identity of
species or functional groups in the
sample (an analyte can be identified).
• Quantitative Analysis provides numerical
information of analyte (quantitate the
exact amount or concentration).
 Analytical Methods

• Classical Methods: Wet chemical

methods such as precipitation, extraction,
distillation, boiling or melting points,
gravimetric and titrimetric measurements.

• Instrumental Methods: Analytical

measurements (conductivity, electrode
potential, light absorption or emission,
mass-to-charge ratio, fluorescence etc.)
are made using instrumentation.
 Types of Instrumental Methods

1. Spectroscopic methods:
a. Atomic spectroscopy
b. Molecular spectroscopy

2. Chromatographic methods
(separations):

3. Electrochemistry:
Block diagram of an instrumental measurement
Block diagram of a fluorometer
 Applications of Instrumental
Methods
1. Bioanalytical: biological molecules and/or
biological matrices (e.g., proteins, amino
acids, blood, urine)
2. Environmental: pesticides, pollution, air,
water, soil
3. Material science: polymers,
characterization of new materials
4. Forensic science (application of science to
the law): body fluids, DNA, gun shot
residue, hair, fibers, elemental analysis,
drugs, alcohols, poisoning, fingerprints, etc.
 Analytical Methodology
1. Plan: Qualitative or quantitative or both; what
kind of information have; which technique is
suitable etc.
2. Sampling: Accuracy depends on proper
sampling, characteristic of sample is very
important, required good representative
sample (from top, middle and bottom and mix
up and take average sample).
3. Sample preparation: depends on analytical
techniques.
4. Analytical measurement:
5. Data Analysis: Whether the data make sense
 Selecting an Analytical Method
 In order to select an analytical method intelligently, it is
essential to define clearly the nature of the analytical
problem. In general, the following points should be
considered when choosing an instrument for any
measurement.
1. Accuracy and precision required
2. Available sample amount
3. Concentration range of the analyte
4. Interference in sample
5. Physical and chemical properties of the sample matrix
6. Number of sample to be analyzed
7. Speed, ease, skill and cost of analysis
 Figures of Merit

 Precision
 Bias
 Sensitivity
 Detection limit
 Concentration range (Dynamic range)
 Selectivity
 Precision: How close the same measurements are
to one another. The degree of mutual agreement
among data that have been obtained in the same
way. Precision provides a measure of the random
or indeterminate error of an analysis.

 Accuracy: How close the measurement

approaches the real value.

 Bias: Bias provides a measure of the systematic,

or determinate error of an analytical method.
bias =  - xt, where,  is the population mean and
xt is the true value
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity of an instrument is a
measure of its ability to discriminate between
small differences in analyte concentration. The
change in signal per unit change in analyte
concentration. The slope of the calibration curve at
the concentration of interest is known as
calibration sensitivity.
S = mc + Sbl
S = measured signal; c= analyte concentration;
Sbl = blank signal; m = sensitivity (Slope of line)
Analytical sensitivity ()
 = m/ss
m = slope of the calibration curve
ss = standard deviation of the measurement
 Detection Limit (Limit of detection, LOD): The minimum
concentration of analyte that can be detected with a specific
method at a known confidence level.
LOD is determined by S/N, where, S/N = Signal-to-noise ratio
= (magnitude of the signal)/(magnitude of the noise)
• Noise: Unwanted baseline fluctuations in the absence of
analyte signal (standard deviation of the background)
• The detection limit is given by,
Cm = (Sm – Sbl)/m, where, Cm = minimum concentration i.e.,
LOD, Sm = minimum distinguishable analytical signal (i.e.,
S/N = 2 or S/N = 3), Sbl = mean blank signal
m = sensitivity (i.e., slope of calibration curve)
• The amount of analyte necessary to yield a net signal equal
to 2 or 3x the standard deviation of the background.
 Dynamic Range: The lowest concentration at which
quantitative measurements can be made (limit of quantitation,
or LOQ) to the concentration at which the calibration curve
departs from linearity (limit of linearity, or LOL).

The lower limit of quantitative measurements is generally

taken to be equal to ten times the standard deviation of
repetitive measurements on a blank or 10 Sbl.
Dynamic range is the range over which detector still responds
to changing concentration (at high concentrations – usually
saturates – quits responding)
An analytical method should have a dynamic range of at least
two orders of magnitude, usually 2-6 orders of magnitude.
 Selectivity: Selectivity of an analytical method
refers to the degree to which the method is free
from interference by other species contained in the
sample matrix. No analytical method is totally free
from interference from other species, and steps
need to be taken to minimize the effects of these
interferences. Selectivity coefficient gives the
relative response of the method to interfering
species as compared with analyte. Selectivity
coefficient can range from zero (no interference) to
values greater than unity. A coefficient is negative
when the interference caused a reduction in the
intensity of the output signal of the analyte.
 Calibration of Instrumental
Methods
 All types of analytical methods require calibration for
quantitation. Calibration is a process that relates the
measured analytical signal to the concentration of
analyte. We can’t just run a sample and know the
relationship between signal and concentration without
calibrating the response

The three most common calibration methods are:

• Calibration curve
• Standard addition method
• Internal standard method
 Calibration Curves
• Several standards (with different concentration) containing exactly
known concentrations of the analyte are measured and the responses
recorded.
• A plot is constructed to give a graph of instrument signal versus analyte
concentration.
• Sample (containing unknown analyte concentration) is run, if response
is within the LDR of the calibration curve then concentration can be
quantitated.
• Calibration curve relies on accuracy of standard concentrations.
• It depends on how closely the matrix of the standards resemble that of
the sample to analyzed.
• If matrix interferences are low, calibration curve methods are OK.
• If matrices for sample and standards are not same calibration curve
methods are not good.
• Need to consider the linear part of the curves.
 Standard Addition Methods
 Better method to use when matrix effects can be substantial
 Standards are added directly to aliquots of the sample,
therefore matrix components are the same.
 Procedure:
• Obtain several aliquots of sample (all with the same
volume).
• Spike the sample aliquots ==> add different volume of
standards with the same concentration to the aliquots of
sample
• Dilute each solution (sample + standard) to a fixed volume
• Measure the analyte concentration
 Standard Addition Methods
 Instrumental measurements are made on each solutions to
get instrument response (S). If the instrument response is
proportional to concentration, we may write,
S = (kVsCs)/Vt + (kVxCx)/Vt
Where, Vx =Volume of sample = 25 mL (suppose)
Vs = Volume of standard = variable (5, 10, 15, 20 mL)
Vt = Total volume of the flask = 50 mL
Cs = Concentration of standard
Cx = concentration of analyte in aliquot
k = proportionality constant
 A plot of S as a function of Vs is a straight line of the form,
S = mVs+b
Where, slope, m = (kCs)/Vt and intercept, b = (kVxCx)/Vt
Now, b/m = (kVxCx)/Vt x Vt/(kCs)
Cx = bCs /mVx
 Standard Addition Method
Another approach to determine Cx
• Extrapolate line on plot to x-intercept
• Recall: At Vs = 0  instrument response (relating
to concentration of x in sample)
• At x-intercept, you know the volume of analyte
added to (i.e., inherent in) the sample.
• Another way: This value S = 0 (no instrument
response)  no analyte present in sample
In any case, Since S = 0,
Therefore, S = (kVsCs)/Vt + (kVxCx)/Vt = 0
Solve for Cx,
Cx = - (Vs)oCs / Vx
 Standard Addition Methods
• In the interest of saving time or sample, it is possible to
perform standard addition analysis by using only two
increments of sample. A single addition of Vs mL of
standard would be added to one of the two samples
and we can write, S1 = (kVxCx)/Vt and S2 = (kVxCx)/Vt +
(kVsCs)/Vt
S 2 k (VxCx  VsCs) Vt
 X
S1 Vt kVxCx
VsCs
 1
VxCx
VsCs S 2  S 1

VxCx S1
S 1VCs
Cx 
Vx ( S 2  S 1)
 Internal standard Method
 An Internal Standard is a substance that is added
in a constant amount to all samples, blanks and
calibration standards in an analysis.
 Calibration involves plotting the ratio of the
analyte signal to the internal standard signal as a
function of analyte concentration of the standards.
 This ratio for the samples is then used to obtain
their analyte concentrations from a calibration
curve.
 Internal standard can compensate for several
types of both random and systematic errors.
Sampling and
Method of Least Squares
Sampling is one of the most important operations in a chemical analysis.
Chemical analyses use only a small fraction of the available sample. The
fractions of the samples that collected for analyses must be representative
of the bulk materials.
Knowing how much sample to collect and how to further subdivide the
collected sample to obtain a laboratory sample is vital in the analytical
process.
All three steps of sampling, standardization, and calibration require a
knowledge of statistics.
Analytical samples and methods

Sample size Type of analysis

> 0.1g Macro
0.01~0.1g Semimicro
0.0001~0.01g Micro
< 10–4 g Ultramicro

Analytical level Type of constituent

1%~100% Major
0.01%(100ppm)~1% Minor
1ppb~100ppm Trace
<1 ppb Ultratrace
Interlaboratory error as a function of analyte concentration.
Note that the relative standard deviation dramatically
increase as the analyte concentration decreases.
W. Horowitz, Anal. Chem., 1982, 54, 67A-76A.
Real Samples

Matrix is the medium containing analyte.

A matrix effect is a change in the analytical
signal caused by anything in the sample other
than analyte.

Sample are analyzed, but constituents or

concentrations are determined.
Sampling is the process by which a sample population is
reduced in size to an amount of homogeneous material that
can be conveniently handled in the lab and whose
composition is representative of the population (unbiased
estimate of population mean).
Ex.
Population : 100 coins
Each coin is a sampling unit or an
increment
Gross sample: 5 coins
the collection of individual sampling units
or increments
Lab sample : the gross sample is reduced in size and
made homogeneous
 Identify the population

Collect a gross sample

Reduce the gross

sample to a lab sample

Steps in obtaining a lab sample ( a few grams ~ a few hundred grams).

Lab sample may constitute as little as 1 part in 107 or 108 of the bulk material.
QUARTERING SAMPLES
A method of obtaining a representative sample for analysis or test of an
aggregate with occasional shovelsful, of which a heap or cone is formed,
This is flattened out and two opposite quarter parts are rejected. Another
cone is formed from the remainder which is again quartered, the process
being repeated until a sample of the required size is left.
The procedures vary somewhat, depending upon the size of the sample.

Quartering Method
Mix samples thoroughly. Pour it onto a
large flat surface.
Divide the sample into four equal parts. Save Discard
Save the 2 opposite quarters. Be sure to
Discard Save
save the fine material at the bottom of the
saved quarter. If the sample is still to large,
divide the sample again.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of extracting from a large quantity of material a small portion,
which is truly representative of the composition of the whole material.
1) Three main group of sampling:
1> Census : all the material is examined  impracticable
2> Casual sampling on an ad hoc basis  unscientific
3> Statistical sampling
2) Sampling procedure
Bulk sample
homogeneous or heterogeneous

Increment

Gross sample
Sub sample

Analysis sample
Census vs Random sampling
Census
A complete enumeration, usually of a population, but also businesses and commercial
establishments, farms, governments, and so forth.

A complete study of the population as compared to a sample.

Random sampling
A commonly used sampling technique in which sample units are selected so that all
combinations of n units under consideration have an equal chance of being selected as
the sample.

(Statistical sampling meaning) A sampling method in which every possible sample has
the same chance of being selected.
3) Sampling statistics :
Total error = sampling error + analytical error

sT = ( sS2 + sA2 )1/2

In designing a sampling plan the following points should be

considered.
1> the number of samples to be taken
2> the size of the sample
3> should individual samples be analysed
or should a sample composed of two or more increments (composite)
be prepared.
How much should be analyzed ?
mR2  KS
where m = mass of each sample analyzed, R= desired relative SD.
How many portions should be analyzed ?
e = (tsS) / (n)1/2
 n = t2sS2 / e2
where n = the number of samples needed
t = Student’s t for the 95% confidence level and n1
degree of freedom.
Statistics of sampling segregated materials
sS2 = [A / mn] + [ B / n]
where sS is the standard deviation of n samples, each of mass m.
The constant A and B are properties of the bulk material and must be
measured in preliminary experiments.
Sampling uncertainties
Both systematic and random errors in analytical data can be traced to
instrument, method, and personal causes. Most systematic errors can be
eliminated by exercising care, by calibration, and by the proper use of
standards, blanks, and reference materials.
For random and independent uncertainties, the overall standard deviation
s0 for an analytical measurement is related to the standard deviation of
the sampling process ss and the the standard deviation of the method sm
by the relationship
s02 = ss2 + sm2

When sm< ss/3, there is no point in trying to improve the measurement

precision.
Size of the gross sample
Basically, gross sample weight is determined by
(1) The uncertainty that can be tolerated between the
composition of the gross sample and that of the whole,
(2) The degree of heterogeneity of the whole,
(3) The level of particle size at which heterogeneity begins.

To obtain a truly representative gross sample, a certain

number N of particles must be taken. The number of
particles required in a gross sample ranges from a few
particles to 1012 particles.
Sampling homogeneous solutions of liquids and
gases
Well mixed solutions of liquids and gases require only a
very small sample because they are homogeneous
down to the molecular level.
Homogeneous ?
Which portion?
Flowing stream?
Gas sampling : Sampling bag (Tedlar® bag)
with a Teflon fitting
Trap in a liquid
Adsorbed onto the surface of a solid
SPME
Tedlar® bag
http://www.tedlarbag.com/tedlarbag.asp#tedlar
 Epilinion 17oC
15m
Thermocline 5~17oC
18m
Hypolimnion
5~6oC

Lake stratification from

spring to summer

Depth profile of nitrate in sediment

from freshwater Lake Sobygard in
Denmark.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
(1) Is the sample a Solid or a Liquid?
Liquids

(2) Are you interested in all sample components or only one or a few?
If only a few then separation is necessary by extraction or
chromatography.

(3) Is the concentration of the analytes appropriate for the

measurement technique?
If not, dilute or concentrate with extraction, evaporation, lyophilization.

(4) Is sample unstable ?

If yes, derivatize, cool, freeze, store in dark

(5) Is the liquid or solvent compatible with the analytical method?

If not, do solvent exchange with extraction, distillation, lyophilization.

http://www.trincoll.edu/~dhenders/textfi~1/Chem%20208%20notes/sample_preparation.htm
 Sampling particulate solids

Identify the population to be analyzed

Randomly collect N particles to give a gross sample

Reduce particle size of gross sample and homogenize

No Randomly collect N particles

Is this sample of a suitable

size for the lab

Store the lab sample

Remove portions of the lab sample for analysis

Steps in sampling and measurement of salt in a potato chip. Step 1 introduces the
sampling variance. Steps 2 to 4 introduce the analytical variance.
Linear regression

Linear regression uses the method of least squares to

determine the best linear equation to describe a set of x and
y data points. The method of least squares minimizes the
sum of the square of the residuals - the difference between a
measured data point and the hypothetical point on a line. The
residuals must be squared so that positive and negative
values do not cancel. Spreadsheets will often have built-in
regression functions to find the best line for a set of data.
A common application of linear regression in analytical
chemistry is to determine the best linear equation for
calibration data to generate a calibration or working curve.
The concentration of an analyte in a sample can then be
determined by comparing a measurement of the unknown to
the calibration curve.
The slope-intercept form of a
straight line.

Calibration curve for the

determination of isooctane in a
hydrocarbon mixture.
Least-square curve fitting.
Linear least-squares analysis
gives you the equation for the
best straight line among a set of
x, y data points when the x data
contain negligible uncertainty.
Determining the best line for calibration data is done using linear
regression.
Equation of calibration line:
y(sy) = [m(sm)]x + [b(sb)]
The Least squares method finds the sum of the squares of the
residuals ssresid and minimizes these according to the minimization
technique of calculus.
ssresid = [yi (b+mxi)]2
A total sum of the squares :
sstot = syy = (yi y)2 = yi 2  yi 2/N
The coefficient of determination (R2) is a measure of the fraction of the
total variation in y that can be explained by the linear relationship
between x and y.
R2 = 1  (ssresid / sstot)
The closer R2 is to unity, the better the linear model explains the y
variations.
Correlation coefficient

Pearson correlation coefficient :

r = [(xi x)(yiy) / nsxsy ]
= [xiyi(nxy)] / [(xi2 nx2)(yi2ny2)] 1/2
= (nxiyixiyi) / [{nxi2(xi)2}{nyi2(yi)2}]1/2
rmax = 1, rmin = 1, r = 0 (when xy=0),
0.90 < r < 0.95 linearity
0.95 < r < 0.99 good linearity
0.99 < r excellent linearity
For the linear equation: y = mx + b Useful quantities:

Standard deviation of the intercept:

Standard deviation of the slope:

Standard deviation of a unknown read from

a calibration curve:
Standard deviation of the residuals:

Where:
N is the number of calibration data points.
L is the number of replicate measurements of the unknown.
and is the mean of the unknown measurements.
 Chapter 2
Chemical Apparatus, and Unit Operation of
Analytical Chemistry
Classifying Chemicals
1. Reagent Grade: Reagent grade chemical conform to the minimum
standards set forth by the Reagent Chemical committee of the American
Chemical Society and are used wherever possible in analytical work.
2. Primary Standard Grade: Extraordinary purity is required for a primary
standard. Primary standard reagent is carefully analyzed and the assay is
printed on the container label.
3. Special-Purpose Reagent: chemicals that have been prepared for a
specific application. Included among these are solvents for
spectrophotometry and high-performance liquid chromatography.
3. Special-Purpose Reagent: chemicals that have been prepared for a
specific application. Included among these are solvents for
spectrophotometry and high-performance liquid chromatography.
2. Primary standard Grade: Extraordinary purity is required for a primary
standard. Primary standard reagent is carefully analyzed and the assay is
printed on the container label.
 Rules for Handling Reagents and
Solutions
1. Select the best grade of chemical available for analytical
work.
2. Replace the top of every container immediately after
removal of the reagent.
3. Hold the stoppers of reagent bottles between your
fingers.
4. Never return any excess reagent to a bottle.
5. Never insert spatulas, spoons, or knives into a bottle
that contains a solid chemicals.
6. Keep the reagent shelf and the laboratory balance clean
and neat.
7. Observe regulations concerning the disposal of surplus
reagents and solutions.
 Cleaning and Marking Laboratory Ware

Every beaker, flask, or crucible that will contain the sample

must be thoroughly cleaned before being used. The apparatus
should be washed with a hot detergent solution and then
rinsed, initially with tap water and finally with several small
portions of deionized water. Organic solvents such as
benzene or acetone may be used to remove grease films.
A chemical analysis is ordinarily performed in duplicate or
triplicate. Each vessel that holds a sample must be marked so
that its content can be positively identified. Flask, beaker and
some crucibles have small etched areas on which semi
permanent mark can be made with a pencil.
 Types of Analytical Balances
An analytical balance is a weighing instrument with a
maximum capacity that ranges from 1 g to a few
kilograms with a precision of at least 1 part in 105 at
maximum capacity.
Macrobalances have a maximum capacity ranging
between 160 and 200 g; measurement can be made
with a standard deviation of 0.1mg.
Semimicroanalytical balances have a maximum
load of 10 to 30 g with a precision of 0.01mg.
Microanalytical balance has a capacity of 1 to 3 g
and a precision of 0.001mg.
 Desiccators and Desiccants
Oven drying is the most common way of removing
moisture from solids. This approach is not
appropriate for substances that decompose or for
those from which water is not removed at the
temperature of the oven.
Dried material are stored in desiccator while they cool
so as to minimize the uptake of moisture. The base
section of the desiccator contains a chemical drying
agent (desiccants) such as anhydrous calcium
chloride, calcium sulfate, magnesium perchlorate or
phosphorus pentoxide.
Desiccator
 Weighing by Difference

Weighing by difference is a simple method for

determining a series of sample weights. First
the bottle and its contents are weighed. One
sample is then transferred from the bottle to a
container; gentle tapping of the bottle with its
top and slight rotation of the bottle control over
the amount of sample removed. Following
transfer, and its residual contents are
weighed. The mass of the sample is the
difference between the two weighings.
Weighing bottles
 Simple Crucibles
Simple crucibles serve only as containers. Porcelain, aluminum
oxide, silica and platinum crucibles maintain constant mass and
are used principally to convert a precipitate into a suitable
weighing form. The solid is first collected on filter paper. The
filter and contents are then transferred to a weighed crucible,
and the paper is ignited.

Filtering Crucibles
Filtering crucibles serve not only as containers but also as
filters. A vacuum is used to hasten the filtration, a tight seal
between crucible and filtering flask is accomplished with any of
the several types of rubber adapters.
Filtering Crucible
 Sintered-glass Crucibles
Sintered-glass crucibles are manufactured in fine, medium, and
coarse porosities. The upper temperature limit for sintered
glass crucible is ordinarily about 200oC. Filtering crucibles
made entirely of quartz can tolerate substantially higher
temperatures.

Filter Paper
Paper is an important filtering medium. Ashless paper is
manufactured from cellulose fibers that have been treated with
hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids to remove metallic
impurities and silica, ammonia is then used to neutralize the
acids. It is necessary to destroy the paper by ignition if the
precipitate collected on it is to be weighed.
Decantation and transferring precipitate
Folding and seating a filter paper
Vacuum Filtration
 Heating Equipment
Many precipitate can be weighed directly after being brought to
constant mass in a low temperature drying oven. Such an oven
is electrically heated and capable of maintaining a constant
temperature to within 1oC. The maximum attainable
temperature ranges from 140 to 260oC, depending on make
and model, for many precipitate 110oC is a satisfactory drying
temperature.
Microwave laboratory ovens are currently appearing on the
market. Where applicable, these greatly shorten drying cycles.
Muffle furnace (a heavy duty electric furnace) is capable of
maintaining controlled temperatures of 1100oC or higher. Long
handled tongs and heat resistance gloves are needed for
protection.
 Volume Measurement
 Pipets

 Burets

 Volumetric flask

 Measuring cylinder
Typical pipets
Automatic pipet
Burets and volumetric flask
Reading a buret
Using pipet
Titration
 Calibrating Glassware

Volumetric glassware is calibrated by

measuring the mass of a liquid (water) of
known density and temperature that is
contained in the volumetric ware.
 Laboratory Notebook
1. Record all data and observations
2. Supply each entry with a heading
3. Date each page of the notebook
4. Never attempt to erase an incorrect entry,
cross it out with single horizontal line
5. Never remove a page from the notebook
6. Do not overcrowd entries
7. Keep first few pages for table of contents
Lab note book
 Scales of Measurements
The possible scale of measurements in analytical chemistry is astounding, ranging
from the atomic level to the size of galaxies!

• (left) Carbon-fiber electrode with a 100-nanometer-diameter (100 × 10−9 meter) tip extending from glass capillary.
The marker bar is 200 micrometers (200 × 10−6 meter). [From W.-H. Huang, D.-W. Pang, H. Tong, Z.-L. Wang,
and J.-K. Cheng, Anal. Chem. 2001, 73, 1048.] (middle) Electrode positioned adjacent to a cell detects release of
the neurotransmitter, dopamine, from the cell. A nearby, larger counterelectrode is not shown. (right) Bursts of
electric current detected when dopamine is released. Insets are enlargements. [From W.-Z. Wu, W.-H. Huang, W.
Wang, Z.-L. Wang, J.-K. Cheng, T. Xu, R.-Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, and J. Liu, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 8914.]
 Chapter 1: Measurements
1-1 SI Units
 Using prefixes as multipliers

We customarily use prefixes for every third power of ten, e.g. 10-9.
10-6, 10-3 …
 Converting between units
Example: Express the energy 20 Calories in terms of ? kilojoules (kJ)
Why should we be concerned of units?

Oops! In 1999, the $125 million Mars

Climate Orbiter spacecraft was lost
when it entered the Martian
atmosphere 100 km lower than
planned. The navigation error would
have been avoided if people had
written their units of measurement.
Engineers who built the spacecraft
calculated thrust in the English unit,
pounds of force. Jet Propulsion
Laboratory engineers thought they
were receiving the information in the
metric unit, newtons. Nobody caught
the error.
 1-2 Chemical concentrations
A few concepts

• Solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances.
• Solute: a minor species in a solution.
• Solvent: the major species in a solution.
• Concentration: how much solute is contained in
a given volume or mass of solution or solvent.
• Strong & weak electrolytes.
1-2 Chemical concentrations (Continued)
Molarity and Molality:
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of a
substance per liter of solution.
Molality (m) is concentration expressed as
moles of a substance per kilogram of solvent.

Problem 1-14. What is the formal concentration (expressed

as mol/L = M) of NaCl when 32.0 g are dissolved in water
and diluted to 0.500 L?

Answer: The molecular mass of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol

The moles of sale in 32.0 g are 32.0 g /58.44(g/mol)
= ……
 1.3 Preparing solutions
• Preparing a solution with a desired molarity

• Dilution

M con  Vcon  M dil  Vdil

Problem 1-32: A bottle of concentrated
aqueous sulfuric acid labeled 98.0wt %
H2SO4, has a concentration of 18.0 M. How
Many millilitres of reagent should be diluted to
1.000 L to give 1.00 M H2SO4?

Solution:
STATISTICAL TESTS
AND ERROR
ANALYSIS
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
PRECISION – Reproducibility of the result
ACCURACY – Nearness to the “true” value
TESTING ACCURACY

TESTING PRECISION
 SYSTEMATIC / DETERMINATE ERROR
• Reproducible under the same conditions in the same
experiment
• Can be detected and corrected for
• It is always positive or always negative

To detect a systematic error:

• Use Standard Reference Materials
• Run a blank sample
• Use different analytical methods
• Participate in “round robin” experiments
(different labs and people running the same
analysis)
 RANDOM / INDETERMINATE ERROR
• Uncontrolled variables in the measurement
• Can be positive or negative
• Cannot be corrected for
• Random errors are independent of each other

Random errors can be reduced by:

• Better experiments (equipment, methodology,
training of analyst)
• Large number of replicate samples

Random errors show Gaussian distribution for a

large number of replicates
Can be described using statistical parameters
For a large number of experimental replicates the
results approach an ideal smooth curve called the
GAUSSIAN or NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Characterised by:

The mean value – x

gives the center of the
distribution

The standard
deviation – s
measures the width of
the distribution
The mean or average, x
 the sum of the measured values (xi) divided by the
number of measurements (n)
n

_  xi
i1
x
n
The standard deviation, s
 measures how closely the data are clustered about
the mean (i.e. the precision of the data)

 2
  x i  x 
i  
s
n1

NOTE: The quantity “n-1” = degrees of freedom

Other ways of expressing the precision of the data:

• Variance
Variance = s2

• Relative standard deviation

s
RSD 
x

• Percent RSD / coefficient of variation

s
% RSD   100
x
 POPULATION DATA
For an infinite set of data,
n→∞: x → µ and s→σ

population mean population std. dev.

The experiment that produces a small

standard deviation is more precise .
Remember, greater precision does not
imply greater accuracy.

Experimental results are commonly

expressed in the form:
_
mean  standard deviation
xs
The more times you measure, the more confident you
are that your average value is approaching the “true”
value.
The uncertainty decreases in proportion to 1/ n
EXAMPLE
Replicate results were obtained for the analysis of
lead in blood. Calculate the mean and the standard
deviation of this set of data.

Replicate [Pb] / ppb

1 752
2 756
3 752
4 751
5 760
_
x  xi Replicate [Pb] / ppb
n 1 752
2 756
3 752
4 751
5 760
s  xi  x 2
n1

NB DON’T round a
std dev. calc until
the very end.
 The first decimal place
of the standard
x  754
754  4 ppb Pb deviation is the last
s  3.77 significant figure of the
average or mean.
Also:

s 3.77
RSD    0.00500
x 754

s 3.77
% RSD   100   100  0.500%
x 754

Variance = s2  3.77 2  14.2

Lead is readily absorbed through the gastro intestinal tract. In blood,
95% of the lead is in the red blood cells and 5% in the plasma. About
70-90% of the lead assimilated goes into the bones, then liver and
kidneys. Lead readily replaces calcium in bones.
The symptoms of lead poisoning depend upon many factors, including
the magnitude and duration of lead exposure (dose), chemical form
(organic is more toxic than inorganic), the age of the individual
(children and the unborn are more susceptible) and the overall state of
health (Ca, Fe or Zn deficiency enhances the uptake of lead).
European Community Environmental
Quality Directive – 50 g/L in drinking water
Pb – where from? World Health Organisation – recommended
• Motor vehicle emissions tolerable intake of Pb per day for an adult –
430 g
• Lead plumbing
• Pewter Food stuffs < 2 mg/kg Pb
• Lead-based paints Next to highways 20-950 mg/kg Pb
• Weathering of Pb minerals Near battery works 34-600 mg/kg Pb
Metal processing sites 45-2714 mg/kg Pb
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS

The confidence interval is the expression stating that

the true mean, µ, is likely to lie within a certain
distance from the measured mean, x.
– Student’s t test

The confidence interval is given by:

_ ts
μx
n
where t is the value of student’s t taken from the table.
A ‘t’ test is used to compare sets of measurements.
Usually 95% probability is good enough.
Example:
The mercury content in fish samples were determined
as follows: 1.80, 1.58, 1.64, 1.49 ppm Hg. Calculate the
50% and 90% confidence intervals for the mercury
content.
Find x = 1.63 50% confidence:
s = 0.131 t = 0.765 for n-1 = 3

μx
_ ts
μ  1.63 
0.765 0.131
n 4
μ  1.63  0.05
There is a 50% chance that the true
mean lies between 1.58 and 1.68
ppm
 x = 1.63
s = 0.131
1.78
90% confidence:
90%
t = 2.353 for n-1 = 3
1.68
_ ts
μ  x 1.63
n 50%
1.58
μ  1.63 
2.3530.131
4
μ  1.63  0.15 1.48

There is a 90% chance that the true

mean lies between 1.48 and 1.78 ppm
Confidence intervals - experimental uncertainty
APPLYING STUDENT’S T:
1) COMPARISON OF MEANS
Comparison of a measured result with a ‘known’
(standard) value

known value  x
t calc  n
s
tcalc > ttable at 95% confidence level
 results are considered to be different
 the difference is significant!

Statistical tests are giving only probabilities.

They do not relieve us of the responsibility of interpreting
our results!
2) COMPARISON OF REPLICATE MEASUREMENTS
Compare two sets of data when one sample has been
measured many times in each data set.
For 2 sets of data with number of measurements n1 , n2 and means
x1 , x2 :
x1  x 2 n1n2
t calc 
spooled n1  n2

Where Spooled = pooled std dev. from both sets of data

s12 (n1  1)  s22 (n2  1)

spooled 
n1  n2  2
Degrees of freedom
= (n1 + n2 – 2)
tcalc > ttable at 95% confidence level
 difference between results is significant.
3) COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Compare two sets of data when many samples have
been measure only once in each data set.
e.g. use two different analytical methods, A and B, to make single
measurements on several different samples.
Perform t test on individual differences between results:

d
t calc  n d = the average difference between
sd methods A and B
n = number of pairs of data

Where
sd   (di  d )2
n1

tcalc > ttable at 95% confidence level

 difference between results is significant.
Example:

(di)

Are the two methods used comparable?

sd   (di  d )2
n1

sd 
 0.022   0.222  0.112  0.112  0.022  0.04 2
61
sd  0.12

d
t calc  n
sd
ttable = 2.571 for 95%
t calc 
0.06 
6 confidence
0.12
tcalc < ttable
t calc  1.2
 difference between results
is NOT significant.
F TEST
COMPARISON OF TWO STANDARD
DEVIATIONS

s12
Fcalc 
s2 2

Fcalc > Ftable at 95% confidence level

 the std dev.’s are considered to be different
 the difference is significant.
Q TEST FOR BAD DATA
gap
Q calc 
range
The range is the total spread
of the data.
The gap is the difference
between the “bad” point and
the nearest value.
Example:
Gap
12.2 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.9
Range

If Qcalc > Qtable  discarded

questionable point
EXAMPLE:
The following replicate analyses were obtained when
standardising a solution: 0.1067M, 0.1071M, 0.1066M and 0.1050M.
One value appears suspect. Determine if it can be ascribed to
accidental error at the 90% confidence interval.

Arrange in increasing order:

Gap
Q = Range
 Analytical Figures of Merit
“Indicate a characteristic of an instrumental
technique for a given analyte”

“7”
Accuracy, Precision, Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Sensitivity, Limit of Detection
Linearity, Linear Dynamic Range
 Accuracy
Indicates how close the measured value is
to the true analytical concentration

Requires a Standard Reference Material

(SRM) of other official measure

NIST: National Institute of Standards and

Technology
 Accuracy
Most commonly reported as percent error

│Cm - Ct│
x 100%
Ct

where:
Cm = measured concentration
Ct = true concentration
 Precision
Indicates the reproducibility of repetitive
measurements of equivalent samples

May be expressed as:

1. Standard Deviation (s or σ)
2. Relative Standard Deviation (RSD)
3. Confidence Limits
Precision
 Standard Deviation
For an infinite number of measurements (σ)

For a finite number of measurements (s)

 Standard Deviation
Note that both s and σ have the same units
as the original values

How many values should be obtained?

Rule of thumb: 16
 45

40 Total Population = 1000

35

30
Population

25

20

15

10

0
96.0 97.0 98.0 99.0 100.0 101.0 102.0 103.0 104.0

Value
 1.00%

0.90% How far is the measured mean from the true value?
0.80%

0.70%
Error in Mean

0.60%

0.50%

0.40%

0.30%

0.20%

0.10%

0.00%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Number of Samples
 70.0%

60.0%
How far is s from σ?

50.0%
Error in Std. Dev.

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Number of Samples
Short Cut: σ ≈ 1/5 (peak-to-peak noise)
 Relative Standard Deviation
RSD = σ/mean

Where the mean may be the signal or the

analyte concentration. RSD is a unit-less
value, so σ must have the same units as
the mean.

RSD is often reported as %RSD, and may be

used to compare different techniques.
 Confidence Limits
Define an interval that encloses
the true value (Ct) with a
specified level of confidence.

1. Cm ± σ 66.7% Confidence Level

2. Cm ± 2σ 95% Confidence Level

3. Cm ± 3σ 99.0% Confidence Level

 Signal to noise Ratio (S/N)
S/N = Sm/σ = 1/RSD

Notes:

1. N = noise (σ)
2. S/N is unitless
3. Always try top maximize S/N
4. S/N is used to compare instruments
5. A plot of S/N versus an instrumental parameter reaches
a maximum at the optimum value for that parameter
 Sensitivity
Experimental slope of a calibration curve

m = ΔS/ΔC

Sensitivity is almost always specific for one

particular instrument.
 100

90

80

70

60
Signal (V)

50 m

40

30 LOD

20

10
LDR
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Concentration (ppm)
 Limit of Detection
The analyte concentration yielding an
analytical signal equal to 3 times the
standard deviation in the blank signal.

LOD = 3 x σbl / m

By definition, the LOD has just one

significant figure!!
 Linearity
Measure of how well the observed data
follows a straight line.

SA = mC
SA = Analytical Signal
m = calibration sensitivity

Remember SA = Stot - Sbl

 Linearity
Plot log(S) versus log(C)

log(SA) = log(m) + log(C)

The slope of this plot should be 1.00

A calibration curve is defined as linear if the

log-log plot has a slope in the range 0.95-1.05
 Linear Dynamic Range
The concentration range over which the
calibration curve is linear

Lower End → LOD

Upper End
Analyte Concentration where the observed
signal falls 5% below the extrapolated line
 LDR Units are
“orders of magnitude”
or
“decades”
of analyte concentration

LDR is easiest to observe on log-log plot

If linearity is poor, define an analytically

useful range (AUR)
Other figures of merit may be calculated,
but these 7 are sufficient.

Selectivity and Resolution may be useful

in cases where more than one analyte is
determined in the same sample.
Chapter 2

Data Handling

141
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy can be defined as the degree of
agreement between a measured value and
the true or accepted value. As the two values
become closer, the measured value is said to
be more accurate.

Precision is defined as the degree of

agreement between replicate measurements
of the same quantity.

142
Assuming the correct or accepted value is
represented by the center of the circles
below, if all values occurred within, for
example, the red circles, results are
precise but not accurate. If all values
occurred within the yellow circle, results
are both accurate and precise. If results
were scattered randomly, results are
neither precise nor accurate.

143
144
Example

The weight of a person was measured five times

using a scale. The reported weights were 84, 83,
84, 85, and 84 kg. If the weight of a person is 76
kg weighed on a standard scale , then we know
that the results obtained using the first scale is
definitely not accurate.
However, the values of the weights for the five
replicate measurements are very close and
reproducible. Therefore measurements are
precise. Therefore, a measurement could be
precise but not accurate.
145
 Significant Figures
At the most basic level, Analytical Chemistry
relies upon experimentation;
experimentation in turn requires
numerical measurements. And
measurements are always taken from
instruments made by other workers.
Significant figures are concerned with
measurements not exact countings.

146
 Some information about
measurements
1) Examples we will study include the metric ruler,
the graduated cylinder, and the scale.
2) Because of the involvement of human beings,
NO measurement is exact; some error is always
involved. This means that every answer in
science has some uncertainty associated with it.
We might be fairly confident we have the correct
answer, but we can never be 100% certain we
have the EXACT correct answer.

147
3) Measurements always have two parts - a
numerical part (sometimes called a factor) and a
dimension (a unit). The reason for this is that we
are measuring quantities - length, elapsed time,
temperature, mass, etc. Not only do we have to
tell how much there is, but we have to tell how
much of what.
Measuring gives significance (or meaning) to each
digit in the number produced. This concept of
significance, of what is and what is not
significant is VERY IMPORTANT.

148
The concept of significant figures (or
significant digits) is important. A
measurement can be defined as the
comparison of the dimensions of an object
to some standard.
The dimensions of an object refer to some
property the object possesses. Examples
include mass, length, area, density, and
electrical charge. Dimensions are often
called units.
149
Identifying significant digits

The following rules are helpful in identifying significant

digits

1. Digits other than zero are significant.

e.g., 42.1m has 3 sig figs.
2. Zeroes are sometimes significant, and sometimes
they are not.
3. Zeroes at the beginning of a number (used just to
position the decimal point) are not significant.
e.g., 0.025m has 2 sig figs. In scientific notation, this can
be written as 2.5*10-2m

150
4. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant.
e.g., 40.1m has 3 sig figs
5. Zeroes at the end of a number that contains a
decimal point are significant.
e.g., 41.0m has 3 sig figs, while 441.20m has 5.
In scientific notation, these can be written
respectively as
4.10*101 and 4.4120*102
6. Zeroes at the end of a number that does not
contain a decimal point may or may not be
significant. If we wish to indicate the number of
significant figures in such numbers, it is common
to use the scientific notation.

151
e.g., The quantity 52800 km could be having 3, 4,
or 5 sig figs—the information is insufficient for
decision. If both of the zeroes are used just to
position the decimal point (i.e., the number was
measured with estimation ±100), the number is
5.28×104 km (3 sig figs) in scientific notation. If
only one of the zeroes is used to position the
decimal point (i.e., the number was measured
±10), the number is 5.280×104 km (4 sig figs). If
the number is 52800±1 km , it implies
5.2800×104 km (5 sig figs).

152
 Exact Numbers
Exact numbers can be considered as having an unlimited
number of significant figures. This applies to defined
quantities too. e.g.,

1. The rules of significant figures do not apply to (a) the

count of 47 people in a hall, or (b) the equivalence: 1
inch = 2.54 centimeters.
2. In addition, the power of 10 used in scientific notation
is an exact number, i.e. the number 103 is exact, but the
number 1000 has 1 sig fig.
It actually makes a lot of sense to write numbers derived
from measurements in scientific notation, since the
notation clearly indicates the number of significant digits
in the number.
153
Look at the following example

154
The general rule for estimation of the last
digit is to record to 1/10th of the smallest
division of the measuring device. So, for
the common centimeter-ruler, in which the
smallest division is 1mm, the estimate for
the last digit can be to 0.1mm which is
1/10th, of the smallest division.

155
Suppose a student records a length of
26.2mm with a ruler (between the red
marks). In his/her judgment, the length is
greater than 26.1mm but less than
26.3mm, and so the best estimate is
26.2mm. The measurement can be written
as 26.2±0.1 mm. The number 26.2mm
contains three significant figures. Although
the last digit, 2, is an estimate, it is
considered to be a significant figure for the
measurement.
156
How do you read it?

How do you read it?

157
158
159
160
161
Math With Significant Figures
Addition and Subtraction
In mathematical operations involving significant figures, the
answer is reported in such a way that it reflects the
reliability of the least precise operation. Let's state that
another way: a chain is no stronger than its weakest link.
An answer is no more precise that the least precise
number used to get the answer. Let's do it one more
time: imagine a team race where you and your team
must finish together. Who dictates the speed of the
team? Of course, the slowest member of the team. Your
answer cannot be MORE precise than the least precise
measurement.

162
For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal
portion (i.e., to the right of the decimal point) of
the numbers ONLY. Here is what to do:
1) Count the number of significant figures in the
decimal portion of each number in the problem.
(The digits to the left of the decimal place are not
used to determine the number of decimal places
in the final answer.)
2) Add or subtract in the normal fashion.
3) Round the answer to the LEAST number of
places in the decimal portion of any number in
the problem.

163
Find the formula weight for Ag2MoO4 given the
following atomic weights: Ag = 107.870, Mo =
95.94, O = 15.9994.
The number with the least number of digits after
the decimal point is 95.94 which has two digits
for expression of precision. Also, it is the number
with the highest uncertainty. The atomic weights
for Ag and O have 3 and 4 digits after the
decimal point. Therefore if we calculate the
formula weight we will get 375.6776. However,
the answer should be reported as 375.68 ( i.e. to
the same uncertainty of the least precise value.

164
 Multiplication and Division
In mathematical operations involving significant
figures, the answer is reported in such a way
that it reflects the reliability of the least precise
operation. Let's state that another way: a chain
is no stronger than its weakest link. An answer is
no more precise that the least precise number
used to get the answer. Let's do it one more
time: imagine a team race where you and your
team must finish together. Who dictates the
speed of the team? Of course, the slowest
member of the team. Your answer cannot be
MORE precise than the least precise
measurement.
165
The following rule applies for multiplication and
division:
The number having the least number of significant
figures is called the KEY NUMBER. The LEAST
number of significant figures in any number of
the problem determines the number of
significant figures in the answer.
This means you MUST know how to recognize
significant figures in order to use this rule.
In case where two or more numbers have the
same least number of significant figures, the key
number is determined as the number of the
lowest value regardless of decimal point.
166
2.5 x 3.42.
The answer to this problem would be 8.6
(which was rounded from the calculator
reading of 8.55). Why?

2.5 is the key number which has two

significant figures while 3.42 has three.
Two significant figures is less precise than
three, so the answer has two significant
figures.
167
How many significant figures will the answer to
3.10 x 4.520 have?
You may have said two. This is too few. A
common error is for the student to look at a
number like 3.10 and think it has two significant
figures. The zero in the hundredth's place is not
recognized as significant when, in fact, it is. 3.10
is the key number which has three significant
figures.
Three is the correct answer. 14.0 has three
significant figures. Note that the zero in the
tenth's place is considered significant. All trailing
zeros in the decimal portion are considered
significant.

168
Example
Synthetic Chemistry Analytical Chemistry

To make a new stuff To find out what is it

“white powder”
 Qualitative Quantitative
to identify to analyze
This white powder is to determine X in a sample
to quantify
NaCl
to measure
0.375 mg/mL caffeine
to detect
There is a trace Run assay
admixture determination
of iodine in this quantitation
sample Composition, %%:
Cu, 85.34(3); Zn, 11.23; Sn, 1.02(2);
Fe, 0.123(2); Mn, 0.058(5); Ni, 0.229(5); …
An example from Harris:

A chocolate story: how much caffeine?

Garbage in,
Garbage out!
Calibration