GROUP 7

Deductive Reasoning

2 objectives:

1. Explain the relation between the premises and

conclusion
2. Provide techniques in discriminating valid and invalid
arguments
Two bodies to achieve these ends:

1. Aristotelian or Classical Logic

2. SYMBOLIC or MODERN or MATHEMATICAL

LOGIC
SYMBOLIC LOGIC
- is a way to represent logical expressions
by using symbols and variables in place of
natural language, such as English, in order
to remove vagueness.
Symbols for Conjunction, Negation and
Disjunction
2 General Categories of Statements:
1. Simple Statement
- a statement that does not contain any other statement as a component.
Example: Manila is the capital of the Philippines.

2. Compound Statement
- A statement that contains two or more statements as components
Example: Manila is the capital of the Philippines and Tokyo is the capital of Japan.
“component”

 A part of a compound statement that is itself a statement.

For part of a statement to be a component of that statement, two

conditions must be satisfied:
(1) The part must be a statement in its own right; and
(2) if the part is replaced in the larger statement by any other statement, the result
of that replacement must be meaningful—it must make sense.
Example:

The man who slapped Maria was a law student.

The man who slapped /Maria was a law student/.
Suppose the part “Maria was a law student” is replaced by
“there are handsome boys in the school.”
The result of this replacement is nonsense:
 “The man who there are handsome boys in the school.”

NOT A COMPONENT
CONJUNCTION
 It is a truth-functional connective meaning “and,” symbolized by the dot, •.
 A statement of the form p • q is true if and only if p is true and q is true.
 Conjunct - Each one of the component statements connected in a conjunctive
statement
 Dot - The symbol for conjunction, •, meaning “and.”
 Truth value - The status of any statement as true or false (T or F).
 Truth-functional component - Any component of a compound statement whose
replacement there by any other statement having the same truth value would leave
the truth value of the compound statement unchanged.
 Truth-functional compound statement - A compound statement whose truth value is
determined wholly by the truth values of its components.
 Truth-functional connective - Any logical connective (e.g., conjunction, disjunction,
material implication and material equivalence) between the components of a truth
functionally compound statement.
 Truth table - An array on which all possible truth values of compound statements are
displayed, through the display of all possible combinations of the truth values of their
simple components. A truth table may be used to define truth-functional connectives;
it may also be used to test the validity of many deductive arguments.
EXAMPLE
 Manila is the capital of the Philippines and Tokyo is the capital of China.
 Manila is the capital of the Philippines and Tokyo is the capital of China.

p•q
T•F
F
TRUTH TABLE (CONJUNCTION)
 Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet.
-N•S

 Byron was a great poet and Byron was a great adventurer.

-Byron was a great poet and a great adventurer
-P•A

 Luis was a famous explorer and Clark was a famous explorer.

-Luis and Clark were famous explorers.
-L•C
NB:
 English words “but,” “yet,” “also,” “still,” “although,” “however,”
“moreover,” “nevertheless,” and so on, and even the comma
and the semicolon, can also be used to conjoin two statements
into a single compound statement, and in their conjunctive
sense they can all be represented by the dot symbol.

Example:
Iran raises the price of oil but Libya does not raise the price of oil.
2. NEGATION
-It pertains to denial

-symbolized by the tilde or curl ~ p which simply means “it

is not the case that p,” and may be read as “not-p.”
M: All humans are mortal.
 ~M
“Not all humans are mortal”
“Some humans are not mortal”
“It is false that all humans are mortal”
“It is not the case that all humans are mortal”
TRUTH TABLE

Example: “~ Rome is the capital of Spain”

is a true statement.
3. DISJUNCTION
-It is a truth-functional connective meaning “or”
-components so connected are called disjuncts.

2 TYPES OF DISJUNCTION:
1. INCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION OR WEAK DISJUNCTION
2. EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION OR STRONG DISJUNCTION
 INCLUSIVE VS EXCLUSIVE
INCLUSIVE
A compound statement asserting inclusive
disjunction is true when at least one of the
disjuncts (that is, one or both) is true. Normally
called simply “disjunction,” it is also called
“weak disjunction” and is symbolized by the
wedge, v.
EXCLUSIVE
A compound statement asserting exclusive
disjunction says that at least one of the
disjuncts is true and that at least one of the
disjuncts is false.

In inclusive sense: In exclusive sense:

Premiums will be waived in the event of “salad or dessert”
sickness or unemployment.

In latin language, “vel” “aut”

TRUTH TABLE

The statement “Rome is the capital of Italy v Rome is the capital of Spain”

is a true statement.
DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

P1: The blind prisoner has a red hat or the blind prisoner
has a white hat.

P2: The blind prisoner does not have a red hat.

C: Therefore, the blind prisoner has a white hat.

DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

P1: The blind prisoner has a red hat or the blind prisoner
has a white hat.
(DISJUNCTION)
P2: The blind prisoner does not have a red hat.
(NEGATION OF THE 1ST DISJUNCT)
C: Therefore, the blind prisoner has a white hat.
(CONCLUSION IS THE SECOND DISJUNCT)
D. PUNCTUATIONS

The teacher says John is a fool.

“The teacher” says John, “is a fool”.

or
The teacher says “John is a fool”.
 2*3+5

2 * 3 + 5=11

Or

2 * 3 + 5= 16
4. PUNCTUTATIONS
 The parentheses, brackets, and braces used in mathematics and logic to eliminate
ambiguity.

“I will study hard and pass the exam or fail”

It could mean:
“I will study hard and pass the exam or I will fail the exam”

or
“I will study hard and I will either pass the exam or fail it.”
4. PUNCTUTATIONS
 The parentheses, brackets, and braces used in mathematics and logic to eliminate
ambiguity.
“I will study hard and pass the exam or fail”
S•PvF
It could mean:
“I will study hard and pass the exam or I will fail the exam”
(S • P) v F
or
“I will study hard and I will either pass the exam or fail it.”
S • (P v F).
Negation of the Disjunction:
-often formed by use of the phrase “neither–nor.”

“Either Fillmore or Harding was the greatest U.S. president”

can be contradicted by the statement,

“Neither Fillmore nor Harding was the greatest U.S. president.”

Negation of the Disjunction:
-often formed by use of the phrase “neither–nor.”

“Either Fillmore or Harding was the greatest U.S. president”

FvH
can be contradicted by the statement,

“Neither Fillmore nor Harding was the greatest U.S. president.”

~ (F v H) or as (~F) • (~H).
“both”
Jamal and Derek will not both be elected.

And

Jamal and Derek will both not be elected.

“both”
Jamal and Derek will not both be elected.
denies the conjunction J • D

And

Jamal and Derek will both not be elected.

each one of the two will not be elected
“both”
Jamal and Derek will not both be elected.
denies the conjunction J • D

~ (J • D)
And

Jamal and Derek will both not be elected.

each one of the two will not be elected

~ (J) • ~ (D)
 The truth value of any compound statement constructed from simple statements
using only the curl and the truth-functional connectives—dot and wedge—is
completely determined by the truth or falsehood of its component simple statements.

 If we know the truth values of simple statements, the truth value of

any truth-functional compound of them is easily calculated.

 In working with such compound statements

we always begin with their inmost
components and work outward.
 ~ [~ (A • X) • (Y v ~ B)]
 Given: A B X Y
T T F F

 ~ [~ (A • X) • (Y v ~ B)]
 ~ [~ (T• F) • (F v ~ T)]
 ~ [~ (F) • (F v F)]
 ~ [T• F]
 ~F
 T
 TRUE
Other examples…
 1. “(Paris is the capital of France v ~Rome is the capital of
Spain) v ~(~Paris is the capital of France •~Rome is the
capital of Spain)

 (T v ~F) v ~(~T•~F)
 (T v T) v ~(F•T)
 T v ~F
TvT
T
 TRUE STATEMENT
 “Either
Iran raises the price of oil and Egypt’s food
shortage worsens, or it is not the case both that
Jordan requests more U.S. aid and that Saudi
Arabia buys five hundred more warplanes”

 “(I • E) v ~(J • S)”