Lecture1introduction of Wirelesscomm

Chapter 8
Digital Transmission Systems

Part 1
25/02/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 1
1 Basics of PCM
• About 50% or less of the traffic carried
on the PSTN is voice traffic which is
initially analog.
• These analog signals must be
converted to a digital format compatible
with the digital network.
• The remaining of the PSTN traffic is
digital data, a great portion of which is
Internet-related that is already digital.
Continue…
• In Digital Networks, the transmission
facilities and the switches are digital.
• The digital waveform on the PSTN is
based on Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
• In the design of PCM systems for
PSTN, the error rate is maintained at
BER = 1×10−3.
Continue…
• In PCM system, the incoming band
limited voice signal (W = 4kHz) is
1. Sampled according to the Nyquist Rate
fs = 2W = 8000 samples/sec,
2. Each sample is then quantized through
Non-uniform Quantizer,
3. Then each quantized sample is encoded
by a k = 8-bit ADC.
• The bit rate Rb = kfs = 64 kbps.
Continue…
• Then, the transmission bandwidth for a
single voice channel is approximately
BT = 64 kHz.
The process of digitization

2 Quantization
Linear
Logarithmic
Input Quantizer Input
law
signal “Mid-rise” or signal
“Compression”
“Mid-tread”
Non-linear quantizer
• A Non-linear quantizer consists of a

logarithmic law circuit called compressor
followed by a linear quantizer.
• On the receiver side, the inverse of the
logarithmic law circuit is used, that is called
expander.
2.1 Companding
• Companding stands for two words
1. Compression
2. Expansion.
• Compression: takes place on the transmit
side of the Transceiver Circuit, it reduces
the dynamic range with little loss of fidelity
• Expansion: takes place on the receive side
of the Transceiver Circuit, and it returns
the signal to its normal condition.
Continue…
• This is done by favoring low-level
speech over higher-level speech.
• Hence, more code segments are
assigned to speech bursts at low
level than at the higher levels,
progressively more as level goes
down.
Continue…
A simple graphic representation of compression. Six-bit coding, eight

six bit sequences per segment.
Continue…
• The figure in the previous slide explains the
non-linear quantization process, where each
sample is encoded with k = 6-bits.
• The total number of levels L = 2k = 256.
• Note that eight coded sequences are
assigned to each level grouping.
• The smallest range rises only 0.0666 V
from the origin (0 V).
• The largest range extends over 0.5 V, and
it is assigned only eight coded sequences.
Continue…
• There are two types of Non-linear
Qunatizers:
1. A-law: European.
where x is the signal input amplitude and

A = 87. 6 for E1 system
A-law used for companding in Europe
The 13-segment approximation of the A -law curve used with E1 PCM equipment
Continue…
• The figure in the previous slide shows the
companding curve and resulting coding
for the European E1 system.
• Note that the curve consists of linear
piecewise segments, seven above and
seven below the origin.
• The segment just above and the segment
just below the origin each consists of two
linear elements.
Continue…
• Counting the collinear elements by the
origin, there are 16 segments.
• Each segment has 16, 8-bit PCM
codewords assigned.
• These are the codewords that identify the
voltage level of a sample at some moment
in time.
• The first bit (MSB) tells the distant-end
receiver if that sample is a positive or a
negative voltage.
Continue…
• Note that all the PCM words above the
origin start with a binary 1, and those
below the origin start with a binary 0.
• The next three bits identify the segment.
• There are 8 segments above the origin and
8 below (23 = 8).
• The last 4 bits, shown in the figure as XXXX,
identify where in the segment that voltage
line is located.
Continue…
• Example: the
code word
11010100 is
+ve and
located in
segment 4.
The European E1 system, coding of segment 4 (positive)

Continue…
2. µ-law: North American.
• Where x is the signal input amplitude

and µ = 255 for DS1 system (New).
• µ = 100 for T1 system (Old).

μ-Law used for companding in the United Sates.
Piecewise linear approximation of the µ-law logarithmic curve
Continue…
• The figure in the previous slide shows
an equivalent logarithmic curve for the
North American DS1 system.
• It uses a 15-segment approximation of
the logarithmic µ -law curve (µ = 255).
• The segments cutting the origin are
collinear and are counted as one.

Continue…
• The first code element (MSB),
indicates to the distant end whether the
sample voltage is positive or negative.
• The next three elements (bits) identify
the segment.
• The last four elements (bits) identify
the actual quantum level inside the
segment.
Eight-level coding of the North American DS1 PCM system. Note that there
are actually only 255 quantizing steps because steps 0 and 1 use the same
bit sequence, thus avoiding a code sequence with no transitions (i.e., all 0s)
3 PCM Codec or TDM System
• Codec is a contraction of the word
group Coder–Decoder.
• Codec: is a TDM transceiver.
• Codec accepts multiple voice channels.
• It digitizes (ADC) and multiplexes the
information; and delivers a serial bit
stream to the trunk line or link.

Continue…
• It receives voice signals from the
telephone sets in the local network
through the subscriber loop.
• It also accepts a serial bit stream
from the link, demultiplexes the
digital information, and performs
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
(DAC).
Simplified functional block diagram of a PCM codec or TDM system
Continue…
• The voice channel to be transmitted is
passed through a 3.4-kHz LPF.
• The output of the LPF is fed to a S/H
Circuit to generate PAM signal.
• The PAM signal (PAM highway) fed to a
Channel Gate Circuit.
• The release of the PAM highway samples
is under the control of the Channel Gate
which is controlled by a pulse derived
from the transmit clock.
Continue…
• The input to the Coder is the PAM
highway.
• It accepts a sample of each (n)
channel gate in sequence and then
generates the appropriate 8-bit
signal character corresponding to
each sample, which is the basic PCM
signal.

Continue…
• The coder output (n PCM signals) is fed
to the Digit Combiner where framing-
alignment signals and necessary
supervisory signaling digits
corresponding to each channel are
inserted in the appropriate time slots.
• On the receive side, the Codec accepts
the serial PCM bit stream through the
Digit Separator.

Continue…
• At the Digit Separator, the n signals
are regenerated and split, delivering the
PCM signal to four locations to carry out
the following processing functions:
1. Timing recovery,
2. Decoding,
3. Frame alignment,
4. Signaling (supervisory).
Continue…
• Timing Recovery keeps the receive clock in
synchronism with the far-end transmit clock.
• The receive clock provides the necessary
gating pulses for the receive side of the PCM
Codec.
• The Frame-Alignment Circuit senses the
presence of the frame-alignment signal at
the correct time interval, thus providing the
receive terminal with frame alignment.
Continue…
• The Decoder, under control of the receive
clock, decodes the code character signals
corresponding to each channel.
• The output of the Decoder is the
reconstituted pulses making up a PAM
highway.
• The Channel Gate accepts the PAM
highway, gating the n-channel PAM
highway in sequence under control of the
receive clock.
Continue…
• The output of the Channel Gate is fed in turn
to each channel filter, thus enabling the
reconstituted analog voice signal to reach the
appropriate voice path.
• Gating pulses extract signaling information in
the signaling processor and apply this
information to each of the reconstituted voice
channels with the supervisory signaling
interface as required by the analog telephone
system in question.
Continue…
• There are two varieties of PCM
Codec:
1.The North American, called DS1 or T1.
2.The European, called E1.
• Both DS1 and E1 are TDM systems.
• The frame duration of E1 and DS1 is
Tf = 1/fs = 1/8000 = 125 μS.

4 E1 System

Multiframe for E1 carrier
Continue…
• E1 PCM system is a 32-channel system.
• One frame = 32-channels.
• Each channel consists of 8-bits.
• We say that, each channel is allotted an
8-bit time slot (TS), TS0 through TS31.
• Total No. of TS per frame = 32.
• TS = Ts/Total no. of channels
= 125μ/32 = 3.906 μS.
Continue…
• The total no. of bits per E1 frame is
Total no. of bits = 8×32 = 256 bits.
• The E1 bit rate to the line is
Rb = 256×8000 = 2.048 Mbps.
• Of the 32 channels (32 TS):
1. 30 channels transmit speech (or data)
derived from incoming telephone trunks
2. The remaining 2 channels transmit
synchronization-alignment and signaling
information.
Continue…
• E1 can be adapted for CCS, providing 31

data channels and employing a single
synchronization channel, and the
signaling protocol being transmitted on a
different physical channel. (Today)
Continue…
• In TS0, a synchronizing code or word
which is called Frame Alignment Word
(FAW) is transmitted every second
frame, occupying digits 2 through 8 as
follows: *0011011.
• This allows the receiver to lock onto the
start of each frame and match up each
channel in turn.
Continue…
• For the alignment mechanism to be
maintained, the FAW does not need to be
transmitted in every frame, only even
frames.
• In those frames (odd frames) without the
synchronizing word called Frame Service
Word (FSW), the second bit of TS0 is
frozen at a 1 so that in these frames the
synchronizing word cannot be imitated
(mimicked).
Continue…
• It is therefore available for other functions, such as the
transmission of the Alarms and Supervisory Signals.
• An alarm must be sent to the transmitter when a device
detects any of the following at the
• Multiplexer
1. A power failure.
2. A failure of the codec.
• Demultiplexer:
1. Loss of the signal.
2. Loss of frame alignment.
3. BER greater than 10−3.

Continue…
• The remaining bits in positions 4 to 8
(Spare bits) of TS0 (odd frames) can
be used in a number of ways, such as
1. Transmission of supervisory information
signals between exchanges.
2. In specific point-to-point applications
3. To establish a data link based on
messages for operations management
4. Maintenance or monitoring of the
transmission quality, and so on.
Continue…
• E1 allow for a full Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) to be performed across
all bits transmitted in each frame, to
detect if the circuit is losing bits
(information), but this is not always
used.
• TS16 is used to carry the call-control
signaling between the exchanges at
either end of the PCM route.
Continue…
• Framing and basic timing should be
distinguished.
• Framing: ensures that the PCM receiver
is aligned regarding the beginning and
end of a bit sequence or frame.
• Timing: refers to the synchronization of
the receiver clock, specifically, that it is in
step with its companion far-end transmit
clock.
4.1 Enhancements to E1
• In order to enhance signaling information
(dial pulses) for all 30 channels to be
transmitted, the concept of Multiframe is
introduced.
• The Multiframe consists of 16 frames
numbered 0-15.
• A Multiframe is divided into two parts:
• Sub-multiframe I (SMF-I): frames 0-7.
• Sub-multiframe II (SMF-II): frames 8-15.

Continue…
• In Frame 0, TS16 contains the Multiframe
Alignment Word (MFAW) and
Multiframe Service Word (MFSW).
• In Frames 1-15, TS16 contains signalling
information for two channels.
• The duration of each Multiframe is 2 mS
(125 µS x 16).

5 Digital Signal 1 (DS1)
DS1 signal format

Continue…
• DS1 PCM system is a 24-channel system.
• One frame = 24-channels.
• Each channel consists of 8-bits.
• We say that, each channel is allotted an
8-bit time slot (TS), TS1 through TS24.
• Total No. of TS per frame = 24.
• TS = (8)(Ts/Total no. of bits per frame)
= (8)(125μ/193) = 5.181 μS.
Continue…
• The DS1 signal format, has one bit added as
a framing bit called an “S” bit for
synchronization.
• The total no. of bits per DS1 frame is
Total no. of bits = 8×24 + 1 = 193 bits.
• The DS1 bit rate to the line is
Rb = 193×8000 = 1.544 Mbps.
• In DS1, all the 24 channels are used to
transmit speech (or data) derived from
incoming telephone trunks.
If bits 1 to 6 and 8 are 0, then bit 7 is transmitted as binary 1
Frame structure of North American DS1 PCM system channel bank

Continue…
• Supervisory signaling is “in-band”
where bit 8 of every sixth frame is
“robbed” for supervisory signaling.
• On each frame that has bit 8 “robbed”
7-bit coding is used versus 8-bit coding
used on the other five frames.
• Thus each equivalent voice channel
carries its own signaling

5.1 Enhancement to DS1
• A Superframe (Multiframe) consists
of 12 consecutive frames.
• Hence, we have developed 12 S-bits
and they all are used for frame
alignment/synchronization.
• Thus, there is a 12-bit sequence,
one S-bit frame from each frame.
Continue…
• This 12-bit sequence is subdivided
into two sequences:
1. The frame alignment pattern is
101010 and is located in the odd-
numbered frames.
2. The Superframe-alignment
pattern is 001110 and is located in
the even-numbered frames.
Superframe for DS1

6 PCM Line Codes
• For E1 trunks, the line coding is
always HDB3 (High-Density Bipolar
Order 3).
• There are four rules for HDB3 coding:
1. More than three consecutive zeros are
not allowed. For the fourth ‘0’ introduce
a Violation bit.
2. Violation bit has to be of the same
polarity as the previous mark ‘1’.
Continue…
3. Two consecutive violation bits has to
be of opposite polarity.
4. If the number of marks between two
consecutive violation bits is even the
format should be B00V where B is a
stuffing bit and of opposite polarity to
the previous mark. If the number of
marks is an odd number the format
should be 000V.

Continue…

Continue…

Continue…
• In DS1, Bipolar with Eight-Zero
Substitution (B8ZS) line code is used.
• In DS2, Bipolar with Six-Zero
Substitution (B6ZS) line code is used.

7 Synchronization of Digital
Signals
• We can classify Higher-Order PCM
Multiplexing Systems (Hierarchy)
according to Data Signals
Synchronization into three categories:
1. Synchronous.
2. Plesiochronous.
3. Asynchronous.

7.1 Synchronous
• In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital
transitions in the signals occur at exactly the
same rate.
• There may however be a phase difference due to
network propagation time delay between the
transitions of the two signals, and this would lie
within specified limits.
• In a synchronous network, all the clocks are
traceable to one Primary Reference Clock
(PRC).
• The accuracy of the PRC is better than ±1 in 1011
and is derived from a cesium atomic standard.
7.2 Plesiochronous
• If two digital signals are Plesiochronous,
their transitions occur at “almost” the same
rate, with any variation being constrained
within tight limits.
• For example, if two networks need to inter-
work, their clocks may be derived from two
different PRCs.
• Although these clocks are extremely
accurate, there’s a small frequency difference
between one clock and the other.
7.3 Asynchronous
• In the case of Asynchronous signals, the
transitions of the signals don’t necessarily
occur at the same nominal rate.
• Asynchronous, in this case, means that the
difference between two clocks is much
greater than a Plesiochronous difference.
• For example, if two clocks are derived from
free-running quartz oscillators, they could
be described as Asynchronous.
8 Higher Order PCM Multiplex
Systems
• Primary multiplex is typically E1 in
Europe and DS1 in North America.
• Higher-order PCM multiplex is
developed out of several primary
multiplex sources.
• There are two PCM multiplexing systems:
1. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
(PDH).
2. SDH/SONET.
9 PDH
• In PDH, Stuffing or Justification bits are
required.
• Stuffing bits are extra frame alignment
bits (word) introduced by the Higher-
Order Multiplexer after buffering.
• As a result, the output of the Higher-
Order Multiplexer is slightly faster than
the original rate of the multiplexed
signal.
• Therefore, bits at the output of PDH
multiplexer buffer must be read at a rate
slightly faster than the input.
Continue…
• Hence, each Higher-Order
Multiplexer needs its own primary
clock.
• Therefore, this type of Higher-Order
Multiplexing is called
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
(PDH).
• PDH is bit by bit multiplexing
scheme (Bit Interleaving).
Continue…
• Bit Interleaving is simpler than
Byte Interleaving because it is
independent of frame structure and
also requires less memory capacity.
• There are two PDH systems:
1. European PDH system.
2. North American PDH system
Continue…
Interleaving digital signals, a) Bit interleaving, b) Word interleaving

(word length = 3 bits)

9.1 European PDH System
American Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

9.2 North American PDH System
American Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

9.3 Disadvantages of PDH
• It is plesiochronous.
• Not only E1 and DS1 are incompatible, the
Higher-Order Multiplexers are also
incompatible, specialized interface equipment
is required to inter-work the two hierarchies.
• To recover a 64 kbps channel from a 140
Mbps (E4) PDH signal, it’s necessary to
demultiplex the signal all the way down to the
2 Mbps level (E1) before the location of the
64 kbps channel can be identified (add and
drop), due to Bit Interleaving concept.
Continue…
• Network management features and
interfaces are vendor dependent.
• High data rates (above 140 or 274
Mbps) are not standardized.
• Optical interfaces are not
standardized but vendor specific.

9.4 Digital Loop Carrier (DLC)
• DLC Is a system which uses digital
transmission to extend the range of the local
loop farther than would be possible using
only twisted pair copper wires.
• DLC is one method of extending the metallic
subscriber plant by using one or more E1 or
DS1 configurations.
• A DLC digitizes and multiplexes the individual
signals carried by the local loops onto a
single data stream on the DLC segment.
Continue…
• As an example, the Single Loop Carrier
SLC-120 employs four E1 configurations to
derive an equivalent 120 voice channels.
• Another example, the SLC-96 employs four
DS1 configurations to derive an equivalent 96
voice channels.
• The digital transmission facility used by a
DLC system may be repeated wire-pair
cable, optical fibers, either or both combined
with digital multiplexers, or other appropriate
media.
Continue…
Digital Loop Carrier Systems

Continue…
Digital Loop Carrier System and Terminal

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Chapter 8

Digital Transmission Systems

The process of digitization

• A Non-linear quantizer consists of a

A simple graphic representation of compression. Six-bit coding, eight

where x is the signal input amplitude and

The European E1 system, coding of segment 4 (positive)

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• Where x is the signal input amplitude

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• E1 can be adapted for CCS, providing 31

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DS1 signal format

Frame structure of North American DS1 PCM system channel bank

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Interleaving digital signals, a) Bit interleaving, b) Word interleaving

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American Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

American Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

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Digital Loop Carrier Systems

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Digital Loop Carrier System and Terminal

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