1.

Reflexele osteo-
tendinoase
2. Muschiul scheletic
3. Jonctiunea neuro-
musculara
Motor unit

The motor unit consists of an

alpha motor neuron and the
group of skeletal muscle fibers
which it innervates
Specialized synapse that serves to transmit electrical impulses from
the motor neuron nerve terminal to the skeletal muscle.
Summary of events occurring
during neuromuscular
transmission
1. The action potential (or electrical impulse signal) reaches the nerve terminal in the
presynaptic region.
2. When action potentials reach the nerve terminal they activate calcium channels,which open
up and facilitate the influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal, which in turn commences the
process of vesicular release into the synaptic cleft.
3. The increase in intracellular calcium concentration triggers the fusion of the synaptic vesicles
with the nerve terminal membrane.
4. Once fused with the nerve terminal membrane, the vesicle releases its contents into the
extracellular space, also known as the synaptic cleft.
5 & 6. Acetylcholine binds to its receptors and opens ligand-gated Na+/K+ channels. These
structures are designed to optimize cholinergic neurotransmission in order to produce an end
plate potential (EPP). The more ACH that is released, the greater the depolarization.
7. The EPP spreads, causing depolarization of areas of muscle membranes adjacent to the end
plate, where voltage gated Na channels are present.
8. Acetylcholinesterase degrades acetylcholine so that it (choline) can be re-uptaked and
recycled to produce new acetylcholine molecules. It’s activity terminates synaptic transmission.
Intracellular Contraction-
Relaxation Steps
 An action potential in the skeletal muscle
cell is what triggers muscle cell
contraction. We have seen that calcium
ions regulate whether or not contraction
can occur. Thus, what is needed is a way
to link muscle excitation (the
depolarization of the action potential) to
Ca++release from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. This link is known as excitation-
contraction coupling.
Muscle structure
Muscle structure
Sarcomere the portion of the myofibril that lies
between two successive Z discs.

Z disk – attaches actin

I band – actin myofilament
A band – both actin and myosin
H zone – only myosin
 Triad = T tubule + 2 SR cisternae
T tubular membranes= extensions of the surface membrane => the
interiors of the T tubules are part of the EC compartment
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is part of the internal membrane system,
one function of which to store Ca. In skeletal muscle, most of the Ca is
stored in the terminal cisternae close to the T-tubular system
Organization of thin and thick
filaments
Contraction = interaction of 1 myosin filament and 2 actin
filaments in the presence of Ca2+

Intracellular Contraction-
Relaxation Steps
1. Action potential is propagated along sarcolemma
and down t tubules.
2. Action potential triggers calcium release from
terminal cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum
3. calcium binds to troponin c, troponin changes shape,
removing the blocking action of tropomyosin, actin
active sites exposed
4. Contraction
5. removal of calcium by re-uptake into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum after the action potential ends
6. Tropomyosin blockage restored, contraction ends
and muscle fiber relaxes, A and M not connected by
cross-brdges
 The “walk-along” theory of contraction

 a head of the cross-bridges from

the myosin filaments attaches to an
active site - profound changes in
the intramolecular forces between
the head and arm of its cross-bridge
- new alignment of forces - head tilt
toward the arm and drag the actin
filament along with it = power
stroke.

 immediately after tilting, the head

automatically breaks away from the
active site and returns to its
extended direction - then it
combines with a new active site
farther down along the actin
filament - head tilts again - new
power stroke - actin filament moves
another step.
Mechanism of contraction
Cross-bridge interaction
 Every time a cross-bridge completes a single
cycle, one ATP is hydrolyzed => energy for the
mechanical aspects of contraction
 Cross-bridge cycle (contraction) continues
until there is either
withdrawal of Ca: cycling stops at position
1 (normal resting muscle)
ATP is depleted: cycling stops at position 3
(rigor mortis). Not under physiologic conditions
Three types of muscular fibres are found in skeletal muscle
I- slow, low tension
IIa- intermediate
IIb- rapid, high tension

Type I – red muscle

 Type I fibers are also known as slow twitch fibers.
 Generally smaller (less powerful) muscle utilized long
term (endurance muscle), e.g., postural muscles

 They are red in colour due to the presence of large

volumes of myoglobin and so oxygen and high
numbers of mitochondria .

 Very resistant to fatigue and are capable of producing

repeated low-level contractions by producing large
amounts of ATP through an aerobic metabolic cycle.
Lower ATP-ase activity (slow muscle)
Type IIa – intermediate fibers
 fast oxidative fibres and are a hybrid of type I and
II fibers.
 contain a large number of mitochondria and
myoglobin, hence their red colour.
 they manufacture and split ATP at a fast rate by
utilising both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
and so produce fast, strong muscle contractions,
although they are more prone to fatigue than
type I fibers.
 Resistance training can turn type IIb fibers into
type IIa due to an increase in the ability to utilise
the oxidative cycle.
 Type IIb – white muscle
 Powerful muscle that is utilized short term, e.g., leg
muscles of a sprinter, ocular muscles of the eye
 fast glycolytic fibers they are white in colour due to
a low level of myoglobin and also contain few
mitochondria.
 they produce ATP at a slow rate by anaerobic
metabolism and break it down very quicky-> higher
ATPase activity (fast muscle)
 this results in short, fast bursts of power and rapid
fatigue.
Skeletal Muscle Mechanics

The amount of tension generated by a

contracting muscle depends on:
1. the frequency of stimulation;
2. the number of motor units stimulated.
The twitch
 the response of a skeletal muscle to a
single stimulation (or action potential)

 latent period - no change in length;

time during which impulse is traveling
along sarcolemma & down t-tubules to
sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium is
being released, and so on (in other
words, muscle cannot contract
instantaneously!)

 contraction period - tension increases

(cross-bridges are swivelling)

 relaxation period - muscle relaxes

(tension decreases) & tends to return to
its original length
 Electrical response elicited by induction
of multiple APs

When a muscle begins to contract its initial strengh of contraction is low

and it increases to a plateau = staircase effect = TREPPE

Caused primarily by increased Ca ions in the cytosol (released for the SR

with each AP) and failure of SR to recapture Ca ions immediately.

Complete tetanus – sufficient free Ca is available for continuous cycling of

all available cross-bridges
Summation = adding together of individual
twitch contractions to increase the intensity of
overall muscle contraction.
 An important characteristic of skeletal muscle is its ability to
contract to varying degrees. A muscle, like the biceps,
contracts with varying degrees of force depending on the
circumstance (this is also referred to as a graded response).
Muscles do this by a process called summation, specifically
by motor unit summation and wave summation.

 Motor Unit Summation - the degree of contraction of a

skeletal muscle is influenced by the number of motor units
being stimulated (with a motor unit being a motor neuron
plus all of the muscle fibers it innervates
 Skeletal muscles consist of numerous motor units and,
therefore, stimulating more motor units creates a stronger
contraction.
Tension- lenght relationship
Maximum strength of
contraction when
the sarcomere is 2.0
to 2.2 μm in length.

Relative positions of
the actin and myosin
filaments at different
sarcomere lengths
from point 1 to point
6.
Muscular fatigue
 In Exercise Physiology, neuromuscular fatigue can be defined as a transient
decrease in muscular performance usually seen as a failure to maintain or
develop a certain expected force or power.

- reduction in the number of active cross-bridges

- reduction of the force produced per cross-bridge.

 Changes in the CNS produce central fatigue: altered input from muscle
sensory nerve fibers, reduced excitatory input to motor control centers of the
brain and spinal cord, and altered excitability of α and γ motor neurons
 Impaired excitability and impaired Ca2+ release can produce peripheral
fatigue

 There are two hypotheses:

 The Accumulation hypothesis
 The Depletion hypothesis
 The origin of fatigue is exercise-dependent and may be due to either
accumulation, depletion, or both.
Accumulation
 There is a buildup of metabolic by-products in
the muscle fiber
 Lactic acid (lactate)
 Hydrogen ions (H+)
 Ammonia
 Inorganic phosphate
 Lactate is the primary marker associated with
the accumulation hypothesis
 If you exercise at a high enough intensity, H+
accumulation interferes with force production
 Applies to maximal exercise for 20 sec  3 minutes
H+ role in muscle fatigue
1. H+ interferes with Ca++ release from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.

2. H+ interferes with actin-myosin binding

affinity

3. H+ interferes with ATP hydrolysis

4. H+ interferes with ATP production

Depletion
2 aspects to the depletion hypothesis:

 Neural depletion
 Depletion of acetylcholine

 Depletion of energy substrates

 Glycogen depletion
REFLEXES

Integrating sensory information at all levels

of the nervous system causes appropriate
motor responses
 The spinal cord gray
matter is the integrative
area for the spinal cord
reflexes.

 Peripheral sensory fibers

and corticospinal fibers
are connected with the
interneurons and anterior
motor neurons of the
spinal cord.
Anterior Motor Neurons:
 alpha motor neurons - large type A alpha (Aα)
motor nerve fibers (14 mm in diameter) -branch
many times after they enter the muscle and
innervate one motor unit in the large skeletal
muscle fibers.

 gamma motor neurons-smaller, less numerous then

alfa (50%)- smaller type A gamma (Aγ) motor
nerve fibers (5 mm in diameter) - intrafusal fibers in
the middle of the muscle spindle, helps control
basic muscle "tone"
Muscle tone
 Muscles are always at least partially contracted.
 Even seemingly relaxed muscles possess a small
degree of tension called resting muscle tonus or
tone.
 This tone is ultimately controlled by impulses from
the brain, though special receptors in the muscles
themselves are also instrumental in its regulation.
 They constantly supply the brain with necessary
information concerning the ever-changing tone in
muscles as well as the present position of muscles
at any time during a movement.
Muscle spindle
 The principal regulator of muscle
tone is the small stretch-sensitive
intramuscular unit called the
muscle spindle.

Central region – does not

contract. Function: receptor (stimulus
= stretch)
2 types of sensitive fibers
– Primary ending = annulospiral, Ia -
encircle central intrafusal fiber; fast
- Secondary ending = type II,
smaller; on one or both sides of the
primary ending

Peripheric region – contracts.

Innervated by A gamma neurons of
anterior horn
Two types of intrafusal fibers
- nuclear bag fibers - innervated by Ia fibers
- nuclear chain fibers – innervated by II fibers
and Ia fibers
Muscle stretch reflexes (deep
tendon reflexes)
 Stimulation of type Ia
afferent nerve fibers found
in the annulospiral/primary
sensory endings result an
increase in the number of
actions potentials sent to
the spinal cord via the
dorsal horn
 Synapse directly with
motor/interneurons within
the spinal cord and elicit a
reflex
 From the ventral horn
through alpha (efferent)
motor neurones to the
extrafusal muscle fibers ---
muscle contraction.
Continous Discharge/ Co-
Activation
 Even when resting there is still a degree of
tension in the intrafusal muscle fibers as a
result of stimulation of the end portions of
the muscle spindle that are innervated by
small gamma (ɣ) neurons, which results in
a degree of tension in the larger
extrafusal fibers as well This assists in the
regulation of muscle tone as it enables to
CNS to constantly be provided with
information from the muscle spindle.
Practical lesson objectives
 To observe and record skeletal muscle tonus
as reflected by a basal level of electrical
activity associated with the muscle in the
resting state.
 To record the maximum grip clench for the
right and the left hand.
 To compare the differences between the
right and the left hand
 To observe, record and correlate motor unit
recruitment with the increased power of
skeletal muscle contraction.