Differential protection : (protective relaying by Blackburn)

Differential principle is applicable to all part of the power system: generation, motor, buses,
transformer, line capacitor, reactor and some times combination of these. During normal
condition or external fault the sum of the current flowing into the relays circuit is almost zero
.However in internal fault condition the net current into the relay circuit is not zero. For example
IP is the primary current is shown in fig (6.1)

To reduce this voltage a non linear resistor should be imposed, this resistor increase the
absorbance of current 32 times, if the voltage is doubled, eg.
Voltage across relay current in non-linear resistor
120 0.01
240 0.32
480 10.24
600 30
Relay Types ( GEC textbook )
Plain Impedance Relay ( non-unit )
The relay impedance characteristic is a circle when it plotted on R-X diagram with its center at the origin,
became the relay does not take into account the phase angle between voltage and current applied to it
Fig(11.5) it is a non directional so that it can operate for all faults a long the vector
GL & GM . it has three main disadvantages
•It is non directional and it requires a directional element
•It is affected by arc resistance
•It is highly affected by power swings because of the large area covered by the impedance circle
Mho Relay:
The characteristic of this relay is a circle, whose circumference passes through the origin, when it is plotted
on R/X diagram fig (11.10.b) showing the relay is inherently directional and will operate only for a fault in the
forward direction. The relay is adjusted be setting Zreach (Zn) and Ø, the angle of displacement of the
diameter from Raxis. Angle Ø is known as relay characteristic angle (RCA). The relay operate for Zf within the
circle. The mho relay characteristic can be obtained by using a phase comparator circuit which compares
input signals S2 and S1 and operates whenever S2 lags S1 by between 90° and 270° [ ( θs1 – θs2 ) between 90°
and 270° ]
The two input signals are:
S2 = V – I * Zn
S1 = V
Where: V = fault voltage from VT secondary winding.
I = fault current from CT secondary winding.
Zn = impedance setting of distance relay.
REACTANCE RELAY :
Reactance relay measures only the line reactance and does not vary with the presence
of arc resistance. Fig (11-12) shows that any increase in arc resistance will not change
the value of the reactance. reach as the relay continue to measure the value of
reactance X.

Distance Protection ( Electrical Power System ) :

The basic idea of using distance protection , is to eliminate the pilot . Since
the pilot can be used up to 30 km in route length . for a feeder shown in Fig (101) , the
line (A-B) is to be protected by Distance relay , which located at bus (A) .
Distance relay compares system voltage to system current presented to it to find out the voltage
as the VT primary side :
example :

A distance relay , which located at A ( fig below) , protects line AB

and BC . the minimum source MVA (3-ø fault level ) at A is 1500
MVA reglect R . The relay characteristic angle 60 . calculated the
setting of the relay to
give a reach of 80% at stage 1 of AB .
Solution :
Maximum Xs = ((132)/(3)^(1/3)) / (1500/((3)^(1/3)*132))=132^2/1500
= j 11.62 ohm / ph (primary)
Reach of stage 1
= 0.8 * 0.435 * 96.5 = 33.6L70 ohm / ph (primary) = 11.48+j31.6 ohm / ph

Total fault impedance = 11.48+j31.6+j11.26 = 44.6L71.8 ohm ohm/ph

Minimum fault current = (132/(3)^(1/3))/44.6 = 1710 A (primary) = 1710*0/600 = 2.8

A(sec)
Line voltage at relaying point = ((3)^(1/3)) * 1710 * 33.6 = 99516 V = 99516 *
(110/132000)=82.9 v (sec)
Reach of compensated impedance= ((32.9) / (((3)^(1/3))*2.85) = 16.8 ohm/ph (scenery)

OR
Reach of compensated impedance 33.6 * CT ratio/VT ratio = 16.8ohm/ph
Relay Setting = relay reach / cost(70-60)
= 17ohm/phase (Typical relay setting range from 320 ohm)
Figure 11.8 Plain impedance relay characteristic
Phase sequence
Electrical power system by guile and
pates
Quadrilateral Relay:
Quadrilateral relay combines the advantage of reactance
with directional relay and resistive reach control.
Characteristic It is applied for earth fault protection of
short and medium lines where high fault resistance
tolerance is required. Fig(11.13)

Transformer Protection Scheme:

Transformer are costly units. Thus, protection is
essential to prevent damages might be caused due
to internal or external faults. The types of protective
relays are summarized below.
Differential Protection:
This type of protection is only applied to large transformers.

Buchholz Protection:
The Buchholz relay is the best device available for detecting
incipient (primary) faults and is specially sensitive to interterm
faults. This relay will operate for one of the reason:
1 – The introduction of air during filling or because of mechanical
failure of the oil system.
2 – Gas produced by the breakdown of the oil.
3 – Gas produced by the breakdown of the solid insulation.
The gases produced are mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
If the quantity is greater than 1% then sort of action must be
taken. The analysis of the gases may be as follow;
Directional over-current relay
This type of over-current is usually mounted at the secondary
side of the transformer
Highest instantaneous relay
It comes with IDMT over-current relay and they mounted at the
primary side of the transformer. This relay detects and
operates for the primary faults only since the relay setting is
above the maximum of secondary fault level.
Restricted earth fault relay
Usually in transformers, earth fault current is limited by the
inclusion of an earthing resistor. The effective operation level
of a restricted earth fault relay is normally less than 25% of
the resistor rating.
Standby earth fault relay:
This relay has a long time delay and it regarded as a last line of
defense and intend to trip only in the event of a sustained
earth fault condition.

Overload protection:
This type of protection is used for large transformers fitted with
oil and winding temperature indicators

1- If the gas is mainly hydrogen with less than 2 % carbon

monoxide then the fault is likely involve only the insulation oil.

2- If the gas is hydrogen with about 20 % carbon monoxide then

the fault is concerned with both solid insulation and insulating
oil
Balanced Earth Fault Relay:-
For secondary earth fault on secondary side the current on delta side is
equal and opposite in two phases and therefore the output to the relay
will be zero. Thus, the relay will operate only for single earth fault on
the delta side.
 Generator Protection Scheme
Generator protection requires immediate disconnection due to
insulation failures. Other faults may be allowed for some time due to
unsatis factory operating conditions.

Insulation Failure:
Stator Protection:
High impedance differential relay is usual for stator protection and is
applied on phase by phase basis
Earth – Fault Protection :
Earth fault protection by an over current relay is essential to
compliment the differential protection scheme and to provide a back-
up protection for the differential relay. When the generator is directly
connected to the power system i.e- without generator – transformer,
it provides a back-up protection for the bus bars and the whole
system. In this case it should have a very long time delay and
should be thought of as the last line of defense.

Rotor Earth Fault Protection :

Earth fault an the rotor will not cause any current to flow to earth and
does not , therefore , constitute a dangerous condition . It a second
fault happened , a portion of the field winding will be short circuited
and resulting in an unbalanced magnetic pull on the rotor. Thus ,
earth fault protection is essential.

Unsatisfactory Operation Condition :

The conditions in general does not require immediate disconnection .
Unbalanced loading :
Unbalanced loading of the generator phases results in the production of
negative phase sequence ( NPS ) currents.
These currents will have a phase rotation in the opposite direction to
the normal phase rotation, produces a magnetic field which induces
currents in the rotor at twice the system frequency. Time will result in
considerable heating in the rotor and would cause damage if
allowed to persist.

Overload:
Overload protection can be achieved by embedded a thermometer in
the stator winding. Overload relay operates over hundreds to
thousands range where an over current relay operates in the one-
ten second range.
Failure of prime mover:
In the failure of prime mover, the generator continues to run, but as a
synchronous motor and this can cause dangerous condition in the
prime mover. To prevent this, a reverse power relay should be
applied.

Loss of Field:
Failure of the field system results in acceleration of the rotor to above
synchronous speed where it continue to generate power as an
induction generator. This condition can be protected by undercurrent
relay.

Over speed:
The rotor speed is controlled by the governor and steam valve. A
sensitive under power relay is used to detect when rotor is over
speed.
Overvoltage:
Voltage is generally controlled by a high-speed voltage regulator. An
instantaneous relay set to 150% is used to cater for defective
operation of voltage regulator.

Protection of Generator/Transformer units:

This can be achieved biased differential protection.