Polyester

Cobalt Particulate
Rockwool Fiber

Submitted To:- Submitted By:-

Dr. Mukesh Kumar Shashank Singh
2018PPE5034
Polyester
 History
1. Carother’s Work:-
 It was W.H. Carothers who discovered that alcohols
and carboxyl acids could be successfully mixed to
create fibers.
 Carothers was working for duPont at the time and
unfortunately when he discovered Nylon, polyester
took a back seat.
2. PET & Terylene:-
 Carother’s incomplete research had not advanced to
investigating the polyester formed from mixing
ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.
 It was British scientists – Whinfield and Dickson
who patented PET or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene
terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers
like Dacron and Terylene.
 Later that year, the first polyester fiber–Terylene–
was created by Whinfield and Dickson along with
Birtwhistle and Ritchiethey. Terylene was first
manufactured by Imperial Chemical Industries or
ICI.
3. DuPont’s Role:-
 It was in 1946 that duPont bought all legal rights
from ICI to produce this polyester fiber in the
United States.
 In 1950, the Dealware property of duPont
manufactured another polyester fiber, which they
named Dacron.
 Polyester was first introduced to the American
public in 1951 as the magical fabric that needed no
ironing! PET and PEN are duPont trademarks that
have turned the use and consumption of Polyester
around.
4. Polyester Becomes Popular
 Subsequent to the development of Terylene and
Dacron, Kodel was developed by Eastman Chemical
Products, Inc in 1958.
 The polyester market underwent rapid expansion
and textile mills emerged everywhere.
 The inexpensive and durable fiber became very
popular and the industry expanded rapidly till the
1970s.
 Unfortunately, the infamous double-knit polyester
image hit the industry and polyester soon came to
be known as the uncomfortable fabric.
 Introduction
 Polyester (aka Terylene) is a category of polymers which
contains the ester functional group in their main chain.
 Polyester is a term often defined as “long-chain polymers
chemically composed of at least 85% by weight of an
ester, a dihydric alcohol and a terephthalic acid”. In other
words, it means the linking of several esters within the
fibers.
 Reaction of alcohol with carboxylic acid results in the
formation of esters.
 Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester"
as a specific material most commonly refers the
Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET).
Reasons for the importance of polyester
 The relatively easy accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and
MEG.
 The very well understood and described simple chemical
process of polyester synthesis.
 The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products
during polyester production and processing.
 The possibility to produce PET in a closed loop at low emissions
to the environment.
 The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties of
polyester.
 The recyclability.
 The wide variety of intermediate and final products made of
polyester.
 Classification of Polyester
1.Saturated polyesters
 Saturated polyesters refer
to that family of polyesters
in which the polyester
backbones are saturated.
 They are thus not as
reactive as unsaturated
polyesters.
 They consist of low
molecular weight liquids
used as plasticizers.
2.Unsaturated polyesters
 Unsaturated polyesters
refer to that family of
polyesters in which the
backbone consists of alkyl
thermosetting resins
characterized by vinyl
unsaturation.
 They are mostly used in
reinforced plastics.
 Economical family of
resins.
 Properties
Morphology
 Fineness
• Polyesters are available in many lengths and deniers.
Very fine denier or microdenier, some approaches to 0.5
denier.
• Microdenier fibers probably will become increasingly
important in the apparel sector.
 Color and Luster
• The fiber is partially transparent and white or off white.
Tenacity
• The quality of fibers which keeps them from parting
without considerable force.
• Polyester filaments and staple fiber are strong because
of their extremely crystalline polymer system.
• This allow the very effective van der Waal’s forces.
• This also allows the very weak Hydrogen bonding.
Hygroscopic Nature
• Polyester filaments are also hydrophobic.
• The hydrophobic nature of the polyester polymer system
attracts fats, greases, oils and any other greasy soils.
• In other words we can also say that polyester polymer
system is oleophilic.
Elastic - Plastic Nature
• The stiffness and hard handle of polyester filaments
are due to their extremely crystalline filaments
polymer system.
• It prevents the polyester polymer from yielding
readily when the filaments of staple fiber is bent or
flexed.
• Yielding is actually a lack of stiffness and giving
way to pressure.
• Polyester filaments are about as plastic as they are
elastic.
Brief Information on Chemical Properties
• Acids : Good resistance to acids in cold condition. But polyester
degrades by sulphuric acid at high temperature.
• Basic : Good resistance to basic in cold condition but strong NaOH
dissolves polyester in boiling.
• Effect of bleaching : Polyester does not get affected by
bleaching process.
• Organic solvent : Organic solvent does not affect polyester.
• Protection Ability against mildew : Good
• Protection ability against insects : Good
• Dyes : Polyester could be dye with disperse , azoic color and some
pigments.
• Solvents : Following are the solvents of polyester:-
• Chlorinated hydrocarbon
• F3COOH
• Phenol (in hot condition)
 Properties
 Denier: 0.5 – 15
 Tenacity : dry 3.5 - 7.0 : wet 3.5 - 7.0
 Elongation at break : dry 15 - 45 : wet 15 - 45%
 Moisture Regain: 0.2 - 0.5%
 Specific Gravity: 1.36 - 1.41%
 Elastic Recovery : @2% =98 : @5% = 65
 Melting point : 260 - 270 degree C
 Effect of Sunlight : turns yellow, retains 70-80%
tenacity at long exposure
 Resistance to Weathering: good
 Rot Resistance: high
 Alkali Resistance: damaged by CON alkali
 Acid Resistance: excellent
 Insects: no effect
Characteristics of Polyester Fibers and Products
 Resists abrasion (but can "pill").
 Very resilient (springs back into shape) and hence is good for
making outdoor clothing for harsh climates.
 Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying. It can be
used for insulation by manufacturing hollow fibers.
 Resist wrinkling and effects of mildew.
 Very high heat can "melt" the fabric.
 The right amount of heat can be used to permanently "heat
set" a crease or pleat.
 Easy to wash ,dry and wear.
 Does not absorb water (can be uncomfortable when worn next
to the skin in warm weather unless loosely woven) but it can
be produced in such a way as to "wick" water away from the
skin.
 Attracts static electricity which also attracts dirt and lint.
 Although they do NOT absorb water, they DO absorb oil
and grease.
 Resist soiling, but once an oil based stain soaks in, it can
be difficult to clean.
 Strong fiber (but nylon is stronger).
 Often blended with cotton or even wool to add crease
resistance.
Forms of Polyester
Uses Of Different Form In Different
Places
 Polyester Blends
Polyester and Cotton
1. Resist wrinkles
2. Resist stains
3. Retain shape
Polyester and Wool
1. Wrinkle resistance
2. Shape retention
3. Increase durability
Polyester and Rayon
1. More durable
2. Shape retention
3. More resilience
 Structure and Appearance
 Colourless and Transparent
 Smooth and Lustrous
 Shape as we require
 Shiny glass rod like
Close Up of Polyester Fiber
 Manufacturing Steps
1. Polymerization
 To form polyester, dimethyl terephthalate is first reacted
with ethylene glycol in the presence of a catalyst at a
temperature of 302-410°F (150-210°C).
 The resulting chemical, a monomer (single, non-
repeating molecule) alcohol, is combined with
terephthalic acid and raised to a temperature of 472°F
(280°C). Newly formed polyester, which is clear and
molten, is extruded through a slot to form long ribbons.
2. Drying
 After the polyester emerges from polymerization, the
long molten ribbons are allowed to cool until they
become brittle.
 The material is cut into tiny chips and completely dried
to prevent irregularities in consistency.
3. Melt Spinning
 Polymer chips are melted at 500-518°F (260-270°C) to
form a syrup-like solution. The solution is put in a metal
container called a spinneret and forced through its tiny
holes, which are usually round, but may be pentagonal
or any other shape to produce special fibers.
 The number of holes in the spinneret determines the
size of the yarn, as the emerging fibers are brought
together to form a single strand.
 At the spinning stage, other chemicals may be added to
the solution to make the resulting material flame
retardant, antistatic, or easier to dye.
4. Drawing the fiber
 When polyester emerges from the spinneret, it is soft
and easily elongated up to five times its original length.
This increases the strength, tenacity, and resilience of
the fiber. This time, when the filaments dry, the fibers
become solid and strong instead of brittle.
 Drawn fibers may vary greatly in diameter and length,
Also, as the fibers are drawn, they may be textured or
twisted to create softer or duller fabrics.
5. Winding
 After the polyester yarn is drawn, it is wound on large
bobbins or flat-wound packages, ready to be woven into
material.
 Uses of Polyester

• PET bottles
• Ropes
• Garments
• Insulating Materials
• Thread
• Hoses
• Power Belting
• Sails
• Floppy Disk Liners
• Thermoformed Trays
• Glass and various Fibers
 Environmental concerns
Pollution of freshwater and seawater habitats
 A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing
what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed
at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using
different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres
shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release
an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester-cotton blend fabric,
496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers
add to the general microplastic pollution.
Non Renewable
 Polyester is a synthetic petroleum-based fiber, and is therefore a
non-renewable carbon-intensive resource. Nearly 70 million barrels
of oil are used each year to make polyester around the world, which
is now the most commonly used fiber in our clothing. But it takes
more than 200 years to decompose.
 Future
 Biodegradable and biocompatible poly(3-
hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), a
copolymer of microbial polyester, was fabricated as a
Nano fibrous mat by electro spinning.
 The researchers have developed a process in which
polyester is dramatically strengthened with a material
known as a liquid crystalline polymer. The liquid
crystalline polymer used in the research is called
Vectra, a plastic material similar to Kevlar that is five
times stronger than steel. Polyester is used because its
chemical structure is ideal for making bonds with the
liquid crystalline polymer.
 Biodegradable Polyesters
 Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are made in modified
PET polymerization facilities from petrochemical
feedstock. Unlike other petrochemical based polymers that
take centuries to degrade after disposal, these polyesters
break down rapidly to CO2 and water in appropriate
conditions where they are exposed to the combined attack
of water and microbes.
 These products meet U.S., European, and Japanese
composting standards, typically breaking down in 12 weeks
under aerobic conditions.
 Synthetic biodegradable polyesters fall into two broad
categories. One is highly amorphous, imparting flexibility
and clarity comparable to a conventional LDPE copolymer.
A second group of semi crystalline polyesters is more rigid
with properties similar to PET, PP, or PS.
 Cobalt
Particulate
 History
Origins of the Word “Cobalt”.
• George Brandt discovered cobalt in 1735.
• The word cobalt, from the German word Kobold,
meaning "goblin" or "evil spirit," was used by miners to
describe a mineral that was very difficult to mine and
was damaging to their health.
• Cobalt is a relatively abundant element at about 10 to 30
parts per million.
History of Cobalt Uses
 Cobalt has been used to colour pottery and glass for at
least 2600 years evidenced by cobalt-containing glazes
having been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs.
 Chinese pottery from Tang (600-900 AD) and Ming
dynasties (1350-1650 AD) also contained blue colours
made from cobalt-containing minerals.
History of Cobalt Sources
 Cobalt sources have changed over its history, from
Norway, Sweden, Hungary and Germany (Saxony) to a
dependence on the African Copper Belt from the 1970s.
 The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) holds
over 50% of global reserves and is responsible for around
50% of global cobalt production.
 Cobalt at a Glance
Cobalt’s Unique Properties
 High melting point (1493°C) and retains its strength to a
high temperature.
 Applications: Cutting tools, superalloys, surface coating, high
speed steels, cemented carbides, diamond tooling.
 Ferromagnetic and retains this property up to 1100°C, a
higher temperature (Curie Point) than any other material
 Applications: Alnico magnets, recording tape, soft magnetic
materials.
 Produces intense blue colours when associated with silica
 Applications: cobalt blue in paints, glazes, enamels etc.

 Multivalent
 Applications: Oil desulphurization, paint and ink drier, tire
adhesives.
Physical Properties:-
 A lustrous, silvery-blue metal.
 It is magnetic.
 Boiling point 2927 °C.
 Density 8.9 g/cm3 at 20°C.
 Melting point 1495 °C.
 It is a brittle and hard metal.
 It has a metallic permeability of about two thirds that of
iron.
Chemical Properties:-
 Cobalt is a moderately reactive element.
 It does not react with water at room temperatures.
 It reacts with most acids to produce hydrogen gas.
 It combines slowly with oxygen in the air, but does not
catch fire and burn unless it is in a powder form.
Cobalt is Essential in a Wide Array of Applications
 Environmental & Renewable Energy
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle and Electric Vehicle
 Fuel Cell Technologies
 Solar Panel and Wind Turbine Generators
 Solar Energy Conversion
 Coal to Liquid Technology
 Gas to Liquid Technology
 Technological
 Mobile phones
 Laptops and Tablets
 Hard disk drives
 Memory chips and integrated circuits
 Satellites
 Industrial
 Drill bits and cutting steels
 Paints and inks
 Ball bearings
 Radial tires
 Medical
 Orthopedic implants and prosthetics
 Wear resistance alloys
 Vitamin B12
 Food preservation
 Cattle feed supplements
 Strategic
 Military and commercial jet engines
 Turbine blades
 Propulsion systems
 Magnets
 Battery Type
Name Lithium
Cobalt Oxide
Lithium Nickel
Cobalt Aluminium
Lithium Nickel
Manganese Cobalt
(LCO) Oxide Oxide
(NCA) (NMC)
Cathode LiCoO2 LiNiCoAlO2 LiNiMnCoO2

Voltage (V) 3.7-3.9 3.65 3.8-4.0

Specific
Energy 150-240 200-300 150-220
(W/Kg)
Cycle Life 500-1000 500 1000-2000

Thermal
150 150 210
Runaway (°C)
Applications Mobile phones, Medical devices, E-bikes, medical devices,
tablets, laptops, electric powertrain, electric vehicles,
cameras industrial industrial
 Cobalt Alloys
 Cobalt-based Superalloys
 Superalloys are defined as "alloys developed for elevated temperature service where
severe mechanical stressing is encountered and high surface stability is frequently
required".
 There are three classes of alloys that meet this definition:- cobalt-base, nickel-base
and iron-base.
 The driving force behind their development is the jet engine which requires ever-
higher operating temperatures.
 Although in terms of properties the hardened nickel-based alloys ("Y" alloy) have
taken the majority share of the superalloy market, cast and wrought cobalt alloys
continue to be used because of the following characteristics:
 Higher melting points than nickel (or iron) alloys
 Superior hot corrosion resistance to gas turbine atmospheres
 Superior thermal fatigue resistance and weldability over nickel superalloys
 Cobalt superalloys are termed austenitic in that the high temperature “Face Centred
Cubic” phase is stabilized at room temperature.
 Cobalt based superalloys are also used in several other applications including:
 gas turbines
 space vehicles
 rocket motors
 nuclear reactors
 power plants
 chemical equipment
Cobalt-based wear resistant alloys
Stellite Alloys
 Stellite alloys usually contain around 50% cobalt(Co)
with 30% of chromium(Cr).
Tristelle Alloys
 Tristelle alloys contain iron(Fe), cobalt(Co) and
nickel(Ni).
Tribaloy Alloys
 The Tribaloy range of high-performance alloys is
composed of stable, non-reactive metals which
contain Co and inclusions of Mo, Cr and Si.
Prosthetic Alloys
 To be a suitable material for use in the replacement of human
joints materials must have the following properties:-
 High level of bio-compatibility
 Adequate strength and wear resistance
 Not be affected by body fluids
 Be able to mirror the physical and mechanical properties of the
replaced joint
 Cobalt-chromium alloys meet all four of these specifications
explaining their popularity.
 In 1937 Vitallium, a cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy, was
used in prosthetics offering good strength, corrosion
resistance and bio-compatibility.
 Typical Vitallium alloys contain 62% cobalt, 30% chromium 5
% molybdenum.
 In 1951 Titanium alloys were introduced offering low weight
and a modulus of elasticity closer to bone.
Magnetic Alloys
Soft Magnets
 Cobalt based soft magnet alloys have advantages over
other soft magnets in that they have a high saturation
point, have a good permeability in magnetic fields and
have a high Curie Point of 950-990oC resulting in
magnetic properties not being altered under
temperatures of 500oC.
Hard Magnets
 Aluminium-nickel-cobalt
 Alnico magnets are utilized in sensors and in motors.
Rockwool Fiber
 History
 Rockwool was first made in 1840 in Wales by Edward
Parry.
 A method of making mineral wool was patented in the
United States in 1870 by John Player and first produced
commercially in 1871 at Georgsmarienhütte
in Osnabrück Germany.
 American chemical engineer Charles Corydon Hall in
1897 developed a technology to convert
molten limestone into fibers and initiated the rock
wool insulation industry in America.
Naming
 Mineral wool is also known as mineral fiber, mineral
cotton, mineral fibre, man-made mineral
fibre (MMMF), and man-made vitreous fiber(MMVF).
 Specific mineral wool products are stone wool and slag
wool.
 Europe also includes glass wool which, together
with ceramic fiber, are completely man-made fibers.
 Types
1. Alkaline earth silicate wool (AES wool)
• AES wool consists of amorphous glass fibres that are
produced by melting a combination of calcium oxide
(CaO−), magnesium oxide (MgO−), and silicon dioxide
(SiO2).
• AES wool has the advantage of being bio-soluble.
2. Alumino silicate wool (ASW)
• Alumino silicate wool, also known as refractory ceramic
fibre (RCF), consists of amorphous fibres produced by
melting a combination of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and
silicon dioxide (SiO2), usually in a weight ratio 50:50.
• Products made of alumino silicate wool are generally used
at application temperatures of greater than 900 °C.
3. Polycrystalline wool (PCW)
• Polycrystalline wool consists of fibres that contain
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) at greater than 70 percent of the
total materials.
• Polycrystalline wool is generally used at application
temperatures greater than 1300 °C.
4. Kaowool
• Kaowool is a type of high-temperature mineral wool made
from the mineral kaolin.
• It was one of the first types of high-temperature mineral
wool invented and has been used into the 21st century.
• It can withstand temperatures close to 3,000 °F (1,650 °C).
 Manufacture
 Stone wool is a furnace product of molten rock at a
temperature of about 1600 °C, through which a stream
of air or steam is blown.
 More advanced production techniques are based on
spinning molten rock in high-speed spinning heads
somewhat like the process used to produce cotton
candy.
 The final product is a mass of fine, intertwined fibres
with a typical diameter of 2 to 6 micrometers.
 Mineral wool may contain a binder, often a terpolymer,
and an oil to reduce dusting.
 Advantages
 Short fibre- compressive strength.
 Non-combustible suitable for temperatures up to 850°C.
 Available in the form of slabs, rolls mattresses and pipe
sections.
 High compressive strength.

Disadvantages
 Dust and fibres are a health risk.
 Loses effectiveness if the insulation becomes wet or damp.
 Low deformation resistance unless properly supported.
 Uneven surface – difficult to metal clad without supports.
 Main Uses
 Thermal insulation of flat roofs and external wall
insulation.
 Fire protection, including smoke and fire barriers.
 High temperature applications.
 Sound insulation for floors and walls.
 Thermal and acoustic insulation of pipe work in
heating and ventilation, air-conditioning and
industrial applications.
 Products
 Rockwool products are available to suit many different
applications. Some standard products would include:
 Duct slab and duct wrap.
 Pre-formed pipe sections.
 Pipe section mattress.
 Pipe bend segments.
 Wired mattress.
 Lamella mattress.