지구물질과학

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,

Korea University
 Introductio
 All of the solid partsnof the universe are composed of
minerals

 Truly of fundamental importance in how we understand the

planet upon which we live,
 and in the ways in which the planet affects our activities.

 From this definition, it is apparent that mineralogy relates chemistry and

physics
to geologic materials.
 Definition of Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a highly ordered atomic
arrangement and a definite (but not fixed) chemical composition.

It is usually formed by inorganic processes.

 Naming of a mineral: Commission on

New Minerals and Mineral Names
(CNMMN) which is part of the
International Mineralogical Association
(IMA).

Quartz (Photo
by Chip Clark) http://www.ill.fr/dif/3D-gallery.html
 Exampl
• Water vs. Ice ? e
• Obsidian (volcanic glass) ?
 Volcanic glass:
lacks a periodic arrangement of atoms, not
crystalline. Also, no definite chemical
composition = rock

• Mineraloid : fulfills most of these

requirements, especially having definite
chemical composition:
e.g., opal (SiO2nH2O)
 Definition of
Mineral
(1) Naturally occurring - labs can now produce synthetic
equivalents
(2) Homogeneous solid - solid substance that cannot be
subdivided
into simpler chemical components
(3) Definite chemical composition - expressed by a chemical
formula
(4) Highly ordered atomic arrangement - internal
structure is arranged in a geometrical pattern
(5) Formed by inorganic processes - others are called biogenic
minerals; e.g. calcite in a mollusk shell, pigeons make
magnetite in their brains, human teeth (apatite)
 Definition of
Mineral
• Ordered atomic arrangement
The crystalline state of matter
(i.e., a geometric pattern or a
framework).
When a natural substance lack order, then
it is
termed amorphous.
Certain earth materials that are amorphous
are therefore, included in the definition
of mineraloid.

Examples :
coal, obsidian, allophane, amber; short
range order may be detected using a
TEM. The
degree of ordering is extremely small.
 Definition of
Mineral
• Inorganic compound:
Included in our definition are minerals produced
through biological processes. This process is termed
biomineralization and can be a major process for
mineral formation.
Examples : calcite - clam shell
apatite - mammal bones
weddellite* - kidney
stones
Ex) Natural substances such as amber, coal &
petroleum; ?
 Definition of Mineral
• Homogeneous solid : a
single, solid substance
(phase) which cannot
physically be separated
into simpler compounds.

• Rocks are usually aggregates

of minerals which can be
physi-cally separated from
one another. (e.g., ice is
mineral, water is not),

• Natural substances such as

mercury; Mineraloids.
 Definition of Mineral, Chemical
composition
• a very common mineral found in nature
is quartz. It is composed of silica and
oxygen in a molar ratio of 1:2 and is
represented by the formula SiO2.
Recall the gram-formula weight of a
compound is the sum of the atomic
weights,
(e.g., Si = 28 and O =16, therefore 28 +
2(16)
= 60 g or 1 mole of quartz).

Not always be fixed. The mineral

olivine, for example, may vary in
composition from Mg2SiO4 to Fe2SiO4.
However, the chemical variation occurs
between strict limits which must be
obeyed (i.e., (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 ). Any
given composition has a specific
formula ( e.g., Mg1.8 Fe0.2SiO4).
Most Important Characteristics of
Minerals:
Composition (kinds of atoms)
Structure (how these atoms are packed
together)
A mineral is crystalline

Crystals are formed

by the repetition in 3-space of a unit of
structure. The extent or limit to which
these units go is the crystal surface.
The crystal surface is therefore, in part,
related
to the shape of unit cell.

The morphology is also dependent upon the manner

(i.e.,
rate) in which the crystal grows.
 Mineralog
y
Study of minerals, specifically:
• composition
• structure (= arrangement of atoms)
• physical properties
• classification
• occurrence
• stability
 Sub-disciplines of
Mineralogy
Mineralog
y

Descriptive Mineralogy Crystal Chemistry

Physical properties Relates the chemical
(e.g. Crystal form, hardness, composition, the internal
color, specific gravity) structure, and the physical
properties of crystals

Classification Geologic Occurrence

~ 3800 species- each has a name Characteristic association
of a mineral (or mineral
paragenesis) in a well-defined
Crystallography geologic setting

Investigation of the
internal structure of crystals
 Mineralogy requires an
understanding of:
• chemistry - elements, electronic structure, bonding, chemical analyses;
forms of crystals

• physics - physical properties (density, electrical properties, cleavage,

hardness, magnetic properties, etc.)

• crystallography - the structure of minerals - internal & external; geometry

and
trigonometry; symmetry

• mineral genesis - environments of formation (e.g., ocean floor vs.

subduction zone)

• determinitive mineralogy - physical and chemical testing; analytical

equipment

• classification schemes

• interrelationships between humans and their natural environment

 And a rock is
…
• Rock: solid mass of
mineral, or mineral-like
matter that occurs
naturally on a planet.

• Rocks made up of
minerals – that still have
their mineral properties
Geologic
Processes
Mineralogy
 Scope

Geochemistry Petrology Geophysics

Abundance, distribution, Conditions of origin, Physical properties
and exchange of elements synthetic minerals of minerals

Structural Geology
and Tectonics Mineralogy Meteorites and
Planetary Studies
Lattice defects,
faulting and folding Geologic history
of other planets

Environmental Geology Economic

and Mineralogy Geology
Land use and civil engineering Mineral deposits
 Why
: scientists study mineralogy
Why do present-day earth
?
◦ Minerals are the basic building blocks of all rocks.
◦ Many minerals have economic value.
◦ Many minerals are important in modern industry, health
and political activities.
◦ A knowledge of mineralogy is required for an
understanding of rocks, and hence for an understanding
of how the earth and other planets operate.
Virtually all aspects of geology are fundamentally tied to
mineralogy.
◦ Geochemistry of fluids -- tied to equilibrium chemical
reactions with minerals
◦ Geophysics -- properties of rocks ultimately related to the
physical properties of minerals. etc, etc.
Azurite ? Malachite ?
 Brief History of Mineralogy

 Agricola: His account summarized a great deal of previous

observations that formed the foundation for the emergence of
mineralogy as a science. These included mineral properties such as
color, transparency, luster, hardness, flexibility and cleavage.

 Nicolaus Steno (a Dane) showed that the angles between crystal

faces of certain minerals were always the same. Steno was observing a
fundamental result of the ordered atomic arrangement of minerals. This
observation became known as Steno's Law.
Properties primarily controlled by atomic
arrangement and bonding:
hardness habit double refraction
tenacity density magnetic attraction
striations
 Brief History of Mineralogy
 Carolus Linnaeus put forth one of the first systems for
classification of minerals based on external form. There
was a growing need to develop methods to systematically
describe and identify minerals and mineral properties for
industrial purposes.

 Rene Hauy proposed that crystals could be made up of

identical integral molecules or building blocks. These integral
units were visualized as too small to be seen with the naked
eye, but combined to yield the external morphology of
crystals.
 Brief History of Mineralogy

 Johan Hessel, a German physician and mineralogist, derived in

1830 the fact that geometric constraints limit the number of crystal
classes to exactly 32, and that only twofold, threefold, fourfold and
sixfold axes of rotational symmetry are possible in minerals.

 Max von Laue passed a narrow beam of X-rays through a crystal

of copper sulfate and history was made. The resultant spots which
showed up on a photographic plate placed behind the crystal could
only be interpreted as the result of the X-rays being diffracted by a
regular arrangement of atoms with spacings comparable to the
wavelength of the X-rays (i.e., Angstroms).
 W.H. and W.L. Bragg determined the first crystal structure by
X-ray techniques. The precise positions of atoms in crystal
structures and the distances between atoms were determined for
the first time.
 Brief History of Mineralogy
• Electron Probe Microanalyzer (EPMA) in the 1960's
determination of the chemical composition of a single
crystal over areas no greater than a few micrometers
became possible.
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), a cousin of the
microprobe, has made high magnification observation of
crystals routine. Even more impressive are the images
resulting from high-energy.
• Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) instruments
which
provide resolution down to the Angstrom scale.
Classification of
Minerals
 Minerals are chemical
compounds

• Chemical compound: stable

combination of elements, electrically
neutral

• Stoichiometry:ratio of elements in a
ideal mineral

• Example: the stoichiometry of quartz is

Si and O in a 1:2 ratio (SiO2)
Classification of
Minerals
Classification of
Minerals
Non-silicates : Chemical
Composition ?
Classification of
Minerals
 Mineral
Structures
Silicates are classified on the basis of Si-O polymerism

The culprit: the [SiO4]4- tetrahedron

Silicate Mineral : Diverse
structure
 Spheres of
Earth
Atmosphere (gaseous envelope that encircles the Earth)
- contains the air we breathe
Biosphere (the zone where life exists)
- protection from solar radiation
- consists of parts of the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere

Hydrosphere (dynamic mass of liquid, vapor, solid water)

- oceans (97% water)
- glaciers
- lakes
- groundwater
http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html

Lithosphere (cool & rigid)

- sphere of rock
- includes the crust and upper mantle

Asthenosphere (hot & weak)

- within the mantle, up to 700 km deep
 Structure of Earth

(1)Inner core: solid Fe-rich

zone with a radius of ca.
1228 km; Fe
alloys (S, O, Ni, Si, C)

(2) Outer core: molten

metallic zone ca. 2260
km thick

(3) Mantle: solid siliceous

layer;
variable thickness with a max.
of ca. 2480 km

(4) Crust: outer skin; solid

siliceous
material; 5-
40 km thick

http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/
%7Ell125/en/fullstruct.htm
 The Earth’s Interior

Mantle:
Peridotite (ultramafic)
Upper to 410 km (olivine  spinel)
 Low Velocity Layer 60-220 km

Transition Zone as velocity increases ~ rapidly

 660 spinel  perovskite-type

 SiIV  SiVI
Lower Mantle has more gradual
velocity increase
Major subdivisions of the Earth. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 The Earth’s Interior

Core:
Fe-Ni metallic alloy
Outer Core is liquid
No S-waves
Inner Core is solid

Major subdivisions of the Earth.

Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
 The Pressure Gradient

• P increases = rgh
• Nearly linear through mantle
– ~ 30 MPa/km
– » 1 GPa at base of ave crust
• Core: r incr. more rapidly
since alloy more dense

Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski

and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25,
297-356. © Elsevier Science.
 The
Geotherma
l Gradient

Estimated ranges of oceanic and

continental steady-state geotherms to a
depth of 100 km using upper and lower
limits based on heat flows measured
near the surface. After Sclater et al.
(1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space
Sci., 18, 269-311.
 Example

• Diamond and Graphite;

are two minerals with
chemical composition = C
(carbon)

• Different arrangement of atoms,

therefore much different
physical properties.
Structure of Earth;
Composition
Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.
22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 41
23rd Ed., p. 92
Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.
22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 441
23rd Ed., p. 435
Igneous
Bowens Reaction Series
•Olivine, pyroxene,
•Hornblende, biotite
•Plagioclase, orthoclase
•Muscovite, quartz
Volatile Loss - Sulfur on Fumarole
Weathering
Sedimentary

Low-temperature
•Calcite, dolomite
•Clays, zeolites
•Hematite, silica
Evaporate Deposits
Metamorphic
Hydrothermal
USE
A few of the many mineral products in the typical
home
 Use of
Minerals
• Soil - to grow food, lumber, and cotton
• Energy - fossil fuels and uraniam
• Steel, aluminum, copper …all other metals
• Diamond, sulfur, fertilizers - all from non metals
• Glass, plaster, concrete, porcelain
• Plastic, rubber, nylon, solvents, chemicals,
medicines
 Use of Minerals &
Rocks
• Arrowheads and spear points from flint or obsidian
 Early prehistoric hunters
• Metals smelted from ore minerals  automobiles
• Ultra-pure silicon from quartz sand grains
 computer manufacture
• Crushed rocks  lie beneath highways and buildings
Calcite
END