Gas Turbines for Aircraft

Propulsion
 Gas turbines

The turbojet engine consists of three main sections: the diffuser, the
gas generator, and the nozzle.
The diffuser placed before the compressor decelerates the incoming
air relative to the engine. A pressure rise known as the ram effect is
associated with this deceleration.
 Gas turbines

The gas generator section consists of a compressor, combustor, and

turbine, with the same functions as the corresponding components of
a stationary gas turbine power plant.
The gases leave the turbine at a pressure significantly greater than
atmospheric and expand through the nozzle to a high velocity before
being discharged to the surroundings.
 Gas turbines

The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas. The diffuser,

compressor, turbine, and nozzle processes are isentropic, and the
combustor operates at constant pressure.

In an actual engine, there would be increases in specific entropy

across the diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle.
 Gas turbines

Process a–1 shows the pressure rise that occurs in the diffuser as the
air decelerates isentropically through this component.
Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression.
Process 2–3 is a constant-pressure heat addition.
Process 3–4 is an isentropic expansion through the turbine during
which work is developed.
Process 4–5 is an isentropic expansion through the nozzle in which
the air accelerates and the pressure decreases.
 Gas turbines

In a typical thermodynamic analysis of a turbojet on an air-standard

basis, the following quantities might be known: the velocity at the
diffuser inlet, the compressor pressure ratio, and the turbine inlet
temperature (at 3). The objective of the analysis would be to
determine the velocity at the nozzle exit. Once the nozzle exit velocity
is determined, the thrust is determined by applying Newton's second
law of motion in a form suitable for a control volume
Example 9.12 Air enters a turbojet engine at 11.8 lbf/in.2,
430°R, and an inlet velocity of 620 miles/h (909.3 ft/s). The
pressure ratio across the compressor is 8. The turbine inlet
temperature is 2150°R and the pressure at the nozzle exit is
11.8 lbf/in.2

The work developed by the turbine equals the compressor

work input. The diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle
processes are isentropic, and there is no pressure drop for
flow through the combustor.

For operation at steady state, determine the velocity at the

nozzle exit and the pressure at each principal state. Neglect
kinetic energy at the exit of all components except the nozzle
and neglect potential energy throughout.
Air enters a turbojet engine at 11.8 lbf/in.2, 430°R, and an
inlet velocity of 620 miles/h (909.3 ft/s).
The pressure ratio across the compressor is 8. The turbine
inlet temperature is 2150°R and the pressure at the nozzle
exit is 11.8 lbf/in.2
Each component is analyzed as a control volume at steady state. The
control volumes are shown on the sketch by dashed lines.
The diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle processes are isentropic.
There is no pressure drop for flow through the combustor.
The turbine work output equals the work required to drive the
compressor.
Except at the inlet and exit of the engine, kinetic energy effects can be
ignored. Potential energy effects are negligible throughout.
The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas.

Analysis: To determine the velocity at the exit to the nozzle, the mass
and energy rate balances for a control volume enclosing this
component reduce at steady state to give
Except at the inlet and exit of the engine, kinetic energy effects can be
ignored. Potential energy effects are negligible throughout.
The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas.

Analysis: To determine the velocity at the exit to the nozzle, the mass
and energy rate balances for a control volume enclosing the nozzle
are applied.
Energy rate balances for a control volume enclosing the nozzle
The inlet kinetic energy is dropped by the assumption that kinetic
energy effects can be ignored except at the inlet and exit of the
engine.
Solving for V5
With the operating parameters specified, the determination h4 and h5
values is accomplished by analyzing each component in turn, beginning
with the diffuser.

The pressure at each principal state can be evaluated as a part of the

analyses required to find the enthalpies h4 and h5.
 Table A-22E ha (at 430 R) =102.7 Btu/lb

T=420 R, h = 100.32 btu/lb

T=440 R, h = 105.11 btu/lb

Energy rate balance for a control volume enclosing the diffuser gives
Table A-22E
h = 114.69 btu/lb, pr = 0.9182
h = 119.48 btu/lb, pr = 1.0590
Interpolation at h = 119.2 btu/lb, pr1 = 1.051

Table A-22E
T=420 R, pr = 0.5760
T=440 R, pr = 0.6776
Interpolation pa (at 430 R) = 0.6268

The flow through the diffuser is isentropic, so pressure p1 is

p1 = 19.79 lbf/in.2

Using the given compressor pressure ratio, the pressure at state 2 is

p2 = 8(19.79 lbf/in.2) = 158.3 lbf/in.2

The flow through the compressor is also isentropic. Thus

Table A-22E
pr = 7.761, h = 211.35 Btu/lb
pr = 8.411, h = 216.26 Btu/lb
Interpolation h2 (at pr = 8.408) = 216.2 Btu/lb
At state 3 the temperature is given as T3 = 2150°R.

Table A-22E
T= 2150°R, h = 546.54 Btu/lb

From Table A-22E, h3 = 546.54 Btu/lb. By assumption of no pressure

drop for flow through the combustor, p3 = p2. The work developed by
the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor. That is
Solving for h4
h4 = 449.5 Btu/lb

Table A-22E
h = 436.12 btu/lb, pr = 101.98
h = 449.71 btu/lb, pr = 114.0
Interpolation at h4 = 449.5 btu/lb, pr4 = 113.8

The expansion through the turbine is isentropic, so

With p3 = p2 = 158.3 lbf/in.2 and pr3 data from

Table A-22E
at h3 = 546.54 btu/lb, pr3 = 233.5
 The expansion through the nozzle is isentropic to p5 = 11.8 lbf/in.2
thus

From Table A-22E, h5 = 265.8 Btu/lb, which is the remaining specific

enthalpy value required to determine the velocity at the nozzle exit.
Using the values for h4 = 449.5 Btu/lb and h5 = 265.8 Btu/lb
determined above, the velocity at the nozzle exit is
 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor
Power Cycle

A combined power cycle couples two

power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from one cycle
is used partly or wholly as the input for the
other cycle.
The stream exiting the turbine of a
gas turbine is at a high temperature.
This high-temperature gas stream
can be used by the combined cycle
shown, involving a gas turbine cycle
and a vapor power cycle.

The two power cycles are coupled so

that the heat transfer to the vapor
cycle is provided by the gas turbine
cycle, which may be called the
topping cycle.
The combined cycle has the gas
turbine's high average temperature
of heat addition and the vapor
cycle's low average temperature of
heat rejection, and thus a thermal
efficiency greater than either cycle
would have individually.

For many applications combined

cycles are economical, and they are
increasingly being used worldwide
for electric power generation.
The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is

is the net power

developed by the gas turbine

is the net power developed

by the vapor cycle
is the total rate of heat
transfer to the combined cycle,
including additional heat transfer, if
any, to superheat the vapor
entering the vapor turbine.
For steady-state operation, negligible
heat transfer with the surroundings,
and no significant changes in kinetic
and potential energy, energy balance
around the heat exchanger gives

Combined cycle performance can

be analyzed using mass and energy
balances. To complete the analysis,
however, the second law is
required to assess the impact of
irreversibilities and the true
magnitudes of losses.
Combined cycle performance can
be analyzed using mass and energy
balances. To complete the analysis,
however, the second law is
required to assess the impact of
irreversibilities and the true
magnitudes of losses.

Among the irreversibilities, the

most significant is the exergy
destroyed by combustion. About
30% of the exergy entering the
combustor with the fuel is
destroyed by combustion
irreversibility.
 Definition of exergy:
Exergy is the maximum theoretical work obtainable
from an overall system consisting of a system and the
environment as the system comes into equilibrium
with the environment (passes to the dead state).

The exergy of a system, E, at a specified state is given by the

expression
The exergy of a system, E, at a specified state is given by the
expression

U, KE, PE, V, and S denote, respectively, internal energy, kinetic energy,

potential energy, volume, and entropy of the system at the specified
state.

U0, V0, and S0 denote internal energy, volume, and entropy, respectively,
of the system when at the dead state. In this chapter kinetic and
potential energy are evaluated relative to the environment.

Thus, when the system is at the dead state, it is at rest relative the
environment and the values of its kinetic and potential energies are
zero.

Death state: the system comes into equilibrium with the environment—
that is, as the system passes to the dead state.
Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies, the
net rate of exergy increase for an open system is given by
Qin
2 3
Combustor

E f 3  E f 2 = mg[(h3  h2)  To(s3  s2)]

mg = mass flow rate through the system

To = surrounding temperature
Example 9.13: A combined gas turbine–vapor power plant has a net
power output of 45 MW. Air enters the compressor of the gas turbine
at 100 kPa, 300K, and is compressed to 1200 kPa.

The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 84%. The condition at

the inlet to the turbine is 1200 kPa, 1400 K. Air expands through the
turbine, which has an isentropic efficiency of 88%, to a pressure of 100
kPa.

The air then passes through the interconnecting heat exchanger and is
finally discharged at 400 K. Steam enters the turbine of the vapor
power cycle at 8 MPa, 400°C, and expands to the condenser pressure
of 8 kPa. Water enters the pump as saturated liquid at 8 kPa. The
turbine and pump of the vapor cycle have isentropic efficiencies of 90
and 80%, respectively.
A combined gas turbine–vapor
power plant has a net power
output of 45 MW. Air enters the
compressor of the gas turbine at
100 kPa, 300K, and is
compressed to 1200 kPa (at 2).

The isentropic efficiency of the

compressor is 84%. The
condition at the inlet to the
turbine is 1200 kPa, 1400 K. Air
expands through the turbine,
which has an isentropic
efficiency of 88%, to a pressure
of 100 kPa (at 4).
The air then passes through the
interconnecting heat exchanger
and is finally discharged at 400
K.

Steam enters the turbine of the

vapor power cycle at 8 MPa,
400°C, and expands to the
condenser pressure of 8 kPa (at
8).

Water enters the pump as

saturated liquid at 8 kPa. The
turbine and pump of the vapor
cycle have isentropic efficiencies
of 90 and 80%, respectively.

Let T0 = 300 K, p0 = 100 kPa.

From the temperature of relative pressure, the enthalpy and entropy
at 9 states can be determined and listed in the following table:

Gas Turbine Vapor Cycle

State h (kJ/kg) s° (kJ/kg · K) State h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg · K)
1 300.19 1.7020 6 183.96 0.5975
2 669.79 2.5088 7 3138.30 6.3634
3 1515.42 3.3620 8 2104.74 6.7282
4 858.02 2.7620 9 173.88 0.5926
5 400.98 1.9919
State 1: T1 = 300 K  h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, pr1 = 1.3860
State 2: p2 = 1200 kPa
p1 p2
For adiabatic compression from p1 to p2: 
pr1 pr 2

p2 1, 200
Therefore pr2: = pr1 = 1.3860 = 16.6320
p1 100

From Table A-22

pr = 16.28, h = 607.02 kJ/kg
pr = 17.30, h = 617.53 kJ/kg
From Table A-22
pr = 16.28, h = 607.02 kJ/kg
pr = 17.30, h = 617.53 kJ/kg

h2,isen = 607.02 + (16.632  16.28)*(617.53  607.02)/(17.30  16.28)

h2,isen = 610.647 kJ/kg

h2 = h1 + (h2,isen  h1)/0.84 = 300.19 + (610.647  300.19)/0.84

h2 = 669.7817 kJ/kg
State 3: T3 = 1400 K  h3 = 1515.42 kJ/kg, pr3 = 450.5
State 4: p = 100 kPa
Adiabatic expansion from 1,200 kPa to 100 kpa

pr 4 pr 3 pr 3 450.5
  pr4 = p4 = 100 = 37.5417
p4 p3 p3 1, 200
From Table A-22
pr = 37.35, h = 767.29 kJ/kg
pr = 39.27, h = 778.18 kJ/kg

h4,isen = 767.29 + (37.5417  37.35)*(778.18  767.29)/(39.27  37.35)

h4,isen = 768.3773 kJ/kg

h4 = h3 + 0.88*(h4,isen  h3) = 1515.42 + 0.88*(768.3773  1515.42)

h4 = 858.0224 kJ/kg
State 7: T7 = 400oC, p7 = 8 MPa
From steam table or CATT2 program
(Computer Aided Thermodynamic Tables 2)

h7 = 3138.3 kJ/kg, s7 = 6.3633 kJ/kgK

Isentropic expansion to state 8, p8 = 8 kPa

 h8,isen = 1989.9 kJ/kg

h8 = h7 + 0.90*(h8,isen  h7) = 3138.3 + 0.90*(1989.9  3138.3)

h8 = 2104.7 kJ/kg

State 9: Saturated liquid at 8 kPa:

h9 = 173.86 kJ/kg, s9 = 0.59254 kJ/kgK
State 9: Saturated liquid at 8 kPa:
h9 = 173.86 kJ/kg, s9 = 0.59254 kJ/kgK

Isentropic compression to state 6: 8 MPa

h6,isen = 181.9 kJ/kg

h6 = h9 + (h6,isen  h9)/0.8 = 173.86 + (181.9  173.86)/0.8

h6 = 183.91 kJ/kg
 mg 5 4

Heat exchanger

6 7 mv

Apply energy balance to the heat exchanger:

mg(h4  h5) = mv(h7  h6)

mv h4  h5 858.02  400.98
 = = 0.1547
mg h7  h6 3138.3  183.96
 2 3

Wp Wt

1 4
Compressor Turbine

The net power developed by the gas turbine is given by

Wg = mg[(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)]

 7

Wt
Vapor
cycle Turbine 8

Condenser
6
Wp 9

The net power developed by the steam turbine is given by

Wv = mv[(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)]

The net power developed by the gas turbine-vapor plant is given by

Wnet = Wg + Wv
Wnet = mg[(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)] + mv[(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)]
Wnet = mg{[(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)] + (mv/mg)[(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)]}
45 MW = mg{[(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)] + (0.1547)[(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)]}
h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, h2 = 669.79 kJ/kg
h3 = 1515.42 kJ/kg, h4 = 858.02 kJ/kg
h6 = 183.96 kJ/kg, h7 = 3138.30 kJ/kg
h8 = 2104.74 kJ/kg, h9 = 173.88 kJ/kg
Solve for mg to obtain mg = 100.87 kg/s
mg = 100.87 kg/s
mv = (0.1547) mg = 15.6 kg/s

The net power developed by the gas turbine is given by

Wg = mg[(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)] = (100.87) [(h3  h4)  (h2  h1)]
h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, h2 = 669.79 kJ/kg
h3 = 1515.42 kJ/kg, h4 = 858.02 kJ/kg
Wg = 29.03 MW
The net power developed by the steam turbine is given by
Wv = mv[(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)] = (15.6) [(h7  h8)  (h6  h9)]
h6 = 183.96 kJ/kg, h7 = 3138.30 kJ/kg
h8 = 2104.74 kJ/kg, h9 = 173.88 kJ/kg
Wv = 15.97 MW
The net rate of exergy increase of the air passing through the combustor is

Qin
2 3
Combustor

E f 3  E f 2 = mg[(h3  h2)  To(s3  s2)]

E f 3  E f 2 = mg[(h3  h2)  To(s3o  s2o  Rln(p3/p2)]

mg = 100.87 kg/s, h2 = 669.79 kJ/kg, p2 = p3

h3 = 1515.42 kJ/kg, To = 300 K, s2o = 2.5088 kJ/kgK, s3o = 3.3620 kJ/kgK

E f 3  E f 2 = 59.48 MW
The net rate of exergy increase because of the water passing through
mv = 15.6 kg/s, To = 300 K
the condenser is h8 = 2104.74 kJ/kg, h9 = 173.88 kJ/kg
s8 = 6.7282 kJ/kgK, s9 = 0.5926 kJ/kgK
8
E f 8  E f 9 = 1.41 MW
Condenser
Qout
9

E f 8  E f 9 = mv[(h8  h9)  To(s8  s9)]