CHEMICAL BONDING

What is a chemical bond?

 A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that
allows the formation of chemical substances that
contain two or more atoms.

 Three types of strong bonding

 Ionic
 Covalent
 Metallic

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 Types of chemical bonding
Type of bonding ionic covalent metallic
Description Electrons are Electrons are A lattice of positive
transferred from shared between ions in a sea of
one atom to atoms electrons
another, forming
ions

What kind of atoms Metal atoms bond Non-metal atoms: • only metal atoms
bond together in with non-metal • of the same •they are usually
this way? atoms to give element or atoms of the same
compounds •of different metal
elements giving •but an alloy has
compounds atoms of different
metals

What holds the The attraction The bonds created The attraction
atoms together? between ions of by sharing between the
opposite charge electrons positive ions and
the electrons
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Types of intermolecular forces
1 van der Waal’s forces
 dispersion forces
 Temporary dipole-induced dipole forces

2 Permanent dipole-dipole forces

3 Hydrogen bonds

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How are ions formed?
 Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons.

 Positive ions  formed when an atom loses one or more

electrons.
 Metal atoms usually lose electrons and form positive ions.

 Negative ions  formed when an atom gains one or more

electrons.
 Non-metal atoms usually gain electrons and form negative ions.

 The charge on the ion depends on the number of electrons

gained or lost.

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The formation of a sodium ion and
chloride ion

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What is an ionic bond or electrovalent
bond?
 It is the strong force
between the oppositely
charged positive and
negative ions.

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Dot-and-cross diagrams
 Shows:
 The outer electron
shells only.
 That the charge of the
ions is spread evenly, by
using square brackets.
 The charge on each ion,
written at the top
right-hand corner of
the square brackets.

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Examples:
Magnesium oxide

Calcium chloride

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Question 1

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What is covalent bonding?
 A bond formed by the
sharing of pairs of
electrons between two
atoms.

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Covalent bonds
 Single covalent bond

 Double covalent bond

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Covalent bonds
 Lone pairs are the pairs of
 Triple covalent bond outer-shell electrons not
used in bonding.

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Dot-and-cross diagrams for some covalent compounds

• Hydrogen
 Water

• Methane
 Ammonia

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 Dot-and-cross diagrams for some covalent compounds
 Sulphur hexafluoride
 Boron trifluoride
-> twelve electrons around
-> six electrons around the the central sulphur atom
boron atom (electron (expanded octet)
deficient)

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Co-ordinate bonding (dative covalent bonding)

 Formed when one atom provides both the

electrons needed for a covalent bond.

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Co-ordinate bond between boron trifluoride and ammonia

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Dot-and-cross diagram for an aluminium chloride molecule.

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Bond length and bond energy
 Bond energy is the energy needed to break one mole
of a given bond in a gaseous molecule.

 Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because

double bonds have a greater quantity of negative charge
between the two atomic nuclei.

 The greater force of attraction between the electrons

and the nuclei pulls the atoms closer together.

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What influenced chemical reactivity?
 Bond strength

 Polarity of the bond

 Polarity of a bond is the distribution of electrical charge
over the atoms joined by the bond.

 Whether the bond is a σ bond or a π bond

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 Bond strength
 Bond strength can influence the reactivity of a
compound.

 A reaction only happens between molecules when a

collision occurs with enough energy to break bonds
in either or both molecules.
 Example: bond energy required is 994 kJ/mol
O = O bond energy required is 496 kJ/mol

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What is the relationship between the bond length
and the bond energy for hydrogen halides?

 The longer the bond

length, the weaker the Hydrogen Bond Bond
bond. halide length, nm energy,
kJ/mol
H-Cl 0.127 431

H-Br 0.141 366

H-I 0.161 299

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Suggest why the bond energy values decrease in
the order HCl > HBr > HI ?

 Going down the halogen group, the atoms are bigger;

 The attractive force between the bonding electrons and

the nucleus gets smaller;

 So less energy needed to break the bond.

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Electron-pair repulsion theory
 All electrons have the same charge so they repel each
other when they are close together.

 The shape and bond angles of a covalently bonded

molecules depend on:

 The number of pairs of electrons around each atom.

 Whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonding pairs.

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Order of repulsion
Lone pair – lone pair > Lone pair-bond pair > Bond pair-bond pair
(most repulsion) (least repulsion)

Least repulsion
Greatest repulsion

Intermediate repulsion

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Bond angles
 The differences in
electron-pair repulsion
determines the shape and
bond angles in a
molecule.
 Methane
 Four bonding pairs of
electrons surrounding the
central carbon atom
 Equal repulsive forces

 Note: In drawing three-

dimensional diagrams:
 triangular wedge ( )is
the bond coming towards
you
 dashed black line ( )is
the bond going away from
you.

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Bond angles
Ammonia Water
 Three bonding pairs of  Two bonding pairs of
electrons and one lone pair electrons and two lone pairs

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Hybridisation of atomic orbitals
 Hybridisation is the process of mixing atomic orbitals
so that each has some character of each of the orbitals
mixed.

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 Sigma bond (s)  A Pi bond (p)  A bond
bond where the line where the overlapping
of electron density is regions exist above and
concentrated below the internuclear axis
symmetrically along (with a nodal plane along the
the line connecting internuclear axis).
the two atoms.

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 Example: H2C=CH2

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Metallic bonding
 Metallic bonding is the
electrostatic attractive
forces between
the delocalized electrons
and the positively charged
metal ions.

 Delocalised electrons Outer-shell

are electrons which are not electrons ‘sea’ of
associated with any one delocalised
particular atom or bond. electrons

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Metallic bonding
 Metallic bonding is strong.
 Ions are held together by the strong electrostatic
attraction (acts in all directions) between their positive
charges and the negative charges of the delocalised
electrons.

 The strength of metallic bonding increases with:

 Increasing positive charge of metal ions in the lattice
 Decreasing size of metal ions in the lattice
 Increasing number of mobile electrons per atom

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Metallic bonding and the properties of metals

 Most metals have high melting points and high boiling

points.
 A lot of energy is needed to weaken the strong attractive forces
between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons.

 Metals conduct electricity

 Electric current flows because the delocalised electrons are free
to move.

 Metals conduct heat

 Partly due to the movement of the delocalised electrons and due
to the vibrations passed on from one metal ion to the next.

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 Intermolecular forces
 Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules.

Type of bond Bond strength, kJ/mol

Ionic bonding in sodium chloride 760
O – H covalent bond in water 464
Hydrogen bonding 20 – 50
Permanent dipole-dipole force 5 – 20
van der Waals’ forces 1 - 20

Strength of different types of bond and intermolecular forces

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 Electronegativity
 The ability of a particular atom, which is covalently
bonded to another atom, to attract the bond pair of
electrons towards itself.

 The greater the value of the electronegativity, the

greater is the power of an atom to attract the electrons
in a covalent bond towards itself.

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 Pattern of electronegativity
 Electronegativity increases across a period from Group
I to Group VII
 Chlorine is the most electronegative in period 3

 Electronegativity increases up each group

 Fluorine is the most electronegative in Group VII

Order of electronegativity for the most electronegative

elements.
F > O > N > Cl > Br

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 Polarity of molecules
 Non-polar  the electronegativity values of the two
atoms forming a covalent bond are the same.
 Examples: H2, Cl2, Br2

 Polar  the electronegativity values of the two atoms

forming a covalent bond are different.

 Examples: H2O, HCl

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 Polar molecule
 The more electronegative atom attracts the pair of
electrons in the bond towards it.
As a result:
- The centre of positive charge does not coincide with the
centre of negative charge;

- The electron distribution is asymmetric;

- The two atoms are partially charged
- The less electronegative atom with the partial charge ‘delta
positive’ ( )
- The more electronegative atom with the partial charge ‘delta
negative’ ( )

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trichloromethane

Polar bonds
Hydrogen chloride water

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Polarity and chemical reactivity
 C2H5Cl is more reactive than ethane, C2H6.

 Reason:
 Reagents like OH- ions can attack the delta positive
carbon atom of the polarised C – Cl bond.

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Van der Waals’ forces
 Very weak forces that exist between all atoms or
molecules.

 Van der Waals’ forces increase with:

 Increasing number of electrons (and protons) in the
molecule

 Increasing the number of contact points between

the molecules
 Contact points are places where the molecules come close
together

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Permanent dipole-dipole forces
 Polar molecules 
molecules with a
permanent dipole

 Permanent dipole-dipole
forces  the forces
between two molecules
having permanent
dipoles

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Hydrogen bonding
 The strongest type of
intermolecular force

 For hydrogen bond to occur

between two molecules
 It needs one molecule having
a hydrogen atom covalently
bonded to F, O or N

 A second molecule having a

F, O or N atom with available
lone pair of electrons

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The peculiar properties of water
 Water has much higher  High surface tension and
enthalpy change of
vaporisation and boiling
point due to extensive
hydrogen bonding.
 Ice is less dense than water
because there is a three-
dimensional hydrogen-
bonded network of water
molecules.
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viscosity
 Hydrogen bonding
reduces the ability of
water molecules to slide
over each other.
 Hydrogen bonds also exert
significant downward
force at the surface of the
liquid causing the surface
tension of water to be
higher than most liquids.
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Bonding and physical properties
A) Physical state at room temperature and pressure
1) Ionic compounds
(a) Ionic compounds are solids at
room temperature and pressure
because:
- There are strong electrostatic
forces (ionic bonds) holding the
positive and negative ions
together
- The ions are regularly arranged
in a lattice with the oppositely
charged ions close to each other.
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(b) They have high
melting points, high
boiling points and
high enthalpy change
of vaporisation.
Reason:
It takes a lot of
energy to overcome
the strong electrostatic
attractive forces.
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Bonding and physical properties
A) Physical state at room temperature and pressure

2) Metals

Metals, apart from mercury, are solids.

Reason:
This is because it takes a lot of energy to
overcome the strong attractive forces between the
positive ions and the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

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Bonding and physical properties
A) Physical state at room temperature and pressure

3) Covalent compounds

Covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases.

They have low melting points, low boiling points and

low enthalpy changes of vaporisation compared with
ionic compounds.

Reason:
This is because the forces between the molecules are
weak.

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Bonding and physical properties
B) Solubility

1) Ionic compounds

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water.

Reason:
Because water molecules are polar and they are
attracted to the ions on the surface of the ionic solid.

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Bonding and physical properties
B) Solubility

2) Metals

Metals do not dissolve in water. However, some metals like

sodium and calcium react with water.

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Bonding and physical properties
B) Solubility

3) Covalent compounds

Two groups:

a) insoluble in water  non-polar (e.g. iodine)

b) soluble in water  small molecules that can

form hydrogen bonds with water.

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Bonding and physical properties
C) Electrical conductivity

1) Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when in the

solid state.

Reason:
Because the ions are fixed in the lattice and are not
free to move.

When molten, ionic compounds conduct electricity

because the ions are free to move.

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Bonding and physical properties
C) Electrical conductivity

2) Metals

Metals conduct electricity both when solid and when molten.

Reason:
Because the delocalised electrons are free to move.

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Bonding and physical properties
C) Electrical conductivity

3) Covalent compounds

Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity.

Reason:
Because they have neither ions nor electrons
which are free to move.

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 END!

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