Biopsychology 8E: John P.J. Pinel

BIOPSYCHOLOGY 8e
John P.J. Pinel
Copyright © Pearson Education 2011

Topics
9.1 Phases of Neurodevelopment
9.2 Postnatal Cerebral Development in

Human Infants
9.3 Effects of Experience on the Early

Development, Maintenance, and
Reorganization of Neural Circuits
9.4 Neuroplasticity in Adults
9.5 Disorders of Neurodevelopment:

Autism and Williams Syndrome
Copyright ©
Pearson Education 2011
Neurodevelopment
• Neural Development – an
ongoing process; the
nervous system is plastic
• Experience plays a key

role
• Dire consequences when

something goes wrong
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• At age 13, Genie
weighed 62 pounds
The Case of Genie and could not chew
solid food
Illustrates the impact
• Beaten, starved,
of severe deprivation restrained, kept in a
on development dark room, denied
normal human
interactions
• Even with special care
and training after her
rescue, her behavior
never became normal
Phases of Development
 Ovum + sperm = zygote

 Developing neurons accomplish
these things in five phases
 Induction of the neural plate
 Neural proliferation
 Migration and aggregation
 Axon growth and synapse
formation
 Neuron death and synapse
rearrangement
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Induction of the Neural Plate
• A patch of tissue on the dorsal

surface of the embryo becomes
the neural plate
• Development induced by
chemical signals from the
mesoderm (the “organizer”)
• Visible three weeks after
conception
• Three layers of embryonic cells:
• Ectoderm (outermost)
• Mesoderm (middle)
• Endoderm (innermost)
FIGURE 9.1: How the neural plate develops
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Neural Proliferation
• Neural plate folds to form the
neural groove, which then fuses
to form the neural tube
• Inside will be the cerebral
ventricles and neural tube
• Neural tube cells proliferate in
species-specific ways: three
swellings at the anterior end in
humans will become the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
• Proliferation is chemically guided
by the organizer areas – the roof
plate and the floor plate
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igration
• Once cells have been created through

cell division in the ventricular zone of
the neural tube, they migrate
• Migrating cells are immature, lacking
axons and dendrites
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Migration
 Two types of neural tube

migration
 Radial migration (moving
out)
 Tangential migration (moving
up)
 Two methods of migration
 Somal – an extension
develops that leads
migration, cell body follows
 Glial-mediated migration –
cell moves along a radial
glial network
 Most cells engage in both
types of migration FIGURE 9.2: Radial Migration and Tangential Migration
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Migration
FIGURE 9.3: Somal Translocation and Glia-Mediated Migration
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Neural Crest
• A structure dorsal to the

neural tube and formed from
neural tube cells
• Develops into the cells of the

peripheral nervous system
• Cells migrate long distances
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Aggregation
• After migration, cells align

themselves with others cells and
form structures
• Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs):
– Aid both migration and
aggregation
– CAMs recognize and adhere to
molecules
• Gap junctions pass cytoplasm
between cells
– Prevalent in brain development
– May play a role in aggregation
and other processes
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Axon Growth and Synapse Formation
• Once migration is complete
and structures have formed
(aggregation), axons and
dendrites begin to grow
• Growth cone – at the
growing tip of each
extension, extends and
retracts filopodia as if finding
its way
• Chemoaffinity hypothesis –
postsynaptic targets release
a chemical that guides
axonal growth, but this does
not explain the often
circuitous routes often
observed
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• Mechanisms underlying axonal

growth are the same across
species
• A series of chemical signals

exist along the way – attracting
and repelling
• Such guidance molecules are

often released by glia
• Adjacent growing axons also

provide signals
FIGURE 9.5: Sperry’s classic

study of eye rotation and
regeneration.
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• Pioneer growth cones – the

first to travel a route,
interact with guidance
molecules
• Fasciculation – the
tendency of developing
axons to grow along the
paths established by
preceding axons
• Topographic gradient
hypothesis – seeks to
explain topographic maps
FIGURE 9.7: The topographic gradient
hyphothesis
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Synapse Formation
Formation of new synapses:

• Depends on the presence of glial
cells
• High levels of cholesterol are

needed—supplied by astrocytes
• Chemical signal exchange

between pre- and postsynapctic
neurons is needed
• A variety of signals act on

developing neurons
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Neuron Death and Synapse Rearrangement
• ~50% more neurons than arebrain

The human needed are
produced – death is normal
• Neurons die due to failure to compete for

chemicals provided by targets:
• The more targets, the fewer cell deaths
• Destroying some cells increases
survival rate of remaining cells
• Increasing number of innervating axons
decreases the proportion that survives
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Life-Preserving Chemicals
• Neurotrophins – promote growth

and survival, guide axons,
stimulate synaptogenesis
• Nerve growth factor (NGF)
• Both passive cell death

(necrosis) and active cell death
(apoptosis)
• Apoptosis is safer than necrosis
– does not promote inflammation
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Life-Preserving Chemicals
FIGURE 9.8: The effect of neuron death and synapse
rearrangement on the selectivity of synaptic transmission
• Neurons that fail to

establish correct
connections are
particularly likely to die
• Space left after

apoptosis is filled by
sprouting axon
terminals of surviving
neurons
• Ultimately leads to
increased selectivity of
transmission
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Postnatal Cerebral Development in Human Infants
• Postnatal growth is a
consequence of:
– Synaptogenesis
– Myelination – sensory areas
and then motor areas.
Myelination of prefrontal cortex
continues into adolescence
– Increased dendritic branches
• Overproduction of synapses
may underlie the greater
plasticity of the young brain
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Development of the Prefrontal
Cortex
• Believed to underlie age-related

changes in cognitive function
• No single theory explains the

function of this area
• Prefrontal cortex plays a role in

working memory, planning and
carrying out sequences of
actions, and inhibiting
inappropriate responses
Effects of Experience on the Early Development,
Maintenance, and Reorganization of Neural Circuits
• Permissive experiences: those that are necessary

for information in genetic programs to be manifested
• Instructive experiences: those that contribute to the

direction of development
• Effects of experience on development are time-

dependent
• Critical period
• Sensitive period
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Early Studies of Experience and
Neurodevelopment
• Early visual deprivation

– Fewer synapses and dendritic
spines in primary visual cortex
– Deficits in depth and pattern
vision
•
•Enriched environment
– Thicker cortexes
– Greater dendritic development
– More synapses per neuron
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Competitive Nature of Experience and
Neurodevelopment
Ocular Dominance Columns

example:
• Monocular deprivation
changes the pattern of
synaptic input into layer IV
of V1 (but not binocular
deprivation)
• Altered exposure during a
sensitive period leads to
reorganization
• Active motor neurons take
precedence over inactive
ones
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Competitive Nature of Experience and
Neurodevelopment
FIGURE 9.10: The effect of a few days of early monocular deprivation on the structure of axons
projecting from the lateral geniculate nucleus into layer IV of the primary visual cortex. Axons carrying
information from the deprived eye displayed substantially less branching. (Adapted from Antonini &
Stryker, 1993.)
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Effects of Experience on
Topographic Sensory Cortex Maps
• Cross-modal rewiring
experiments demonstrate the
plasticity of sensory cortexes –
with visual input, the auditory
cortex can see
• Change input, change cortical
topography – shifted auditory
map in prism-exposed owls
• Early music training influences
the organization of human
auditory cortex – fMRI studies
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Experience Fine-Tunes Neurodevelopment
• Neural activity regulates

the expression of genes
that direct the synthesis
of CAMs
• Neural activity influences
the release of
neurotrophins
• Some neural circuits are
spontaneously active and
this activity is needed for
normal development
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Neuroplasticity in Adults
• The brain changes and

adapts
• Neurogenesis (growth of new
neurons) seen in olfactory
bulbs and hippocampuses of
adult mammals'—adult
neural stem cells created in
the epedymal layer lining in
ventricles and adjacent
tissues
• Enriched environments and
exercise can promote
neurogenesis
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Effects of Experience on the Reorganization of the Adult
Cortex
• Tinnitus (ringing in the ears) – produces major
reorganization of primary auditory cortex
• Adult musicians who play instruments fingered by left
hand have an enlarged representation of the hand in
the right somatosensory cortex
• Skill training leads to reorganization of motor cortex
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Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism
• Three core symptoms:
– Reduced ability to interpret emotions
– Reduced capacity for social interaction
– Preoccupation with a single subject or

activity
• Intensive behavioral therapy may improve

function
• Heterogenous – level of brain damage and

dysfunction varies
• Often considered a spectrum disorder
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Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism
• Incidence: 6.6 per 1,000 births (or 1 in 166)

• 80% males, 60% have mental retardation, 35%
epileptic, 25% have little or no language ability
• Most have some abilities preserved – rote memory,
jigsaw puzzles, musical ability, artistic ability
• Autistic Savants – intellectually handicapped
individuals who display specific cognitive or artistic
abilities
– ~1/10 autistic individuals display savant abilities
– Perhaps a consequence of compensatory functional
improvement in one area following damage to
another
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Genetic Basis of Autism
• Siblings of children with

autism have a 5%
chance of having autism
• 60% concordance rate

for monozygotic twins
• Several genes
interacting with the
environment
Source: Bouchard & McGue, 1981
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Neural Mechanisms of Autism
Understanding of brain structures involved in

autism is still limited, so far implicated:
• Cerebellum
• Amygdala
• Frontal cortex
Two lines of research on cortical involvement
in autism:
• Abnormal response to faces in autistic
patients
– Spend less time than non-autistic
subjects looking at faces, especially
eyes
– Low fMRI activity in fusiform face area
• Possibly deficient in mirror neuron function
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Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Williams
Syndrome
• Incidence: 1 in every 7,500 births

• Mental retardation and an uneven pattern of abilities
and disabilities
• Sociable, empathetic, and talkative– exhibit language
skills, music skills, and an enhanced ability to
recognize faces
• Profound impairments in spatial cognition
• Usually have heart disorders associated with a
mutation in a gene on chromosome 7 – the gene (and
others) is absent in 95% of those with Williams
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Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Williams
Syndrome
• Evidence for a role of

chromosome 7 (as in
autism)
• General thinning of
cortex at juncture of
occipital and parietal
lobes, and at the
orbitofrontal cortex
• “Elfin” appearance –
short, small upturned
noses, oval ears,
broad mouths FIGURE 9.13 Two areas of reduced cortical volume and one area
of increased cortical volume observed in people with Williams
syndrome. (See Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2006; Toga & Thompson,
2005.)
Copyright ©
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Acknowledgments
Slide Image Description Image Source
template lightning ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
template background texture ©istockphoto.com/Hedda Gjerpen
Chapter 09 Grandmother and grandchild smelling flowers

©iStockphoto.com/hanhanpeggy
image
3, 16, 21
28, 30, 33 brain ©istockphoto.com/Stephen Kirklys
4 paper clip ©istockphoto.com/Jon Patton
4 folder ©istockphoto.com/kyoshino
4 tabletop ©istockphoto.com/Andrew Cribb
5 human egg ©istockphoto.com/ChristianAnthony
5 human sperm ©istockphoto.com/Alexander Kozachok
6 Figure 9.1 Pinel 8e, p. 221
7 person thinking ©istockphoto.com/akurtz
11 book ©istockphoto.com/Carmen Martínez Banús
12 two puzzle pieces ©istockphoto.com/Henrik Jonsson
13 woman observing & taking notes ©istockphoto.com/Claudio Arnese

14 Figure 9.5 Pinel 8e, p.224

17 neuron ©istockphoto.com/ktsimage
18 toddler listening to adult speak ©istockphoto.com/Jani Bryson Studios, Inc.
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Acknowledgments
20 two babies ©istockphoto.com/schwester
22 head - woman ©istockphoto.com/Angel Herrero de Frutos
23 hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper
24 binoculars ©iStockphoto.com/Alex Staroseltsev
26 wires ©istockphoto.com/Take A Pix Media
27 swinging ©istockphoto.com/HooRoo Graphics
28 person with thought bubble ©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC
29 piano and violin ©iStockphoto.com/Yenwen Lu
32 twins ©istockphoto.com/Thomas Gordon
36 laptop ©istockphoto.com/CostinT
36 table and wall ©istockphoto.com/David Clark
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BIOPSYCHOLOGY 8e

John P.J. Pinel

Copyright © Pearson Education 2011

9.2 Postnatal Cerebral Development in

9.3 Effects of Experience on the Early

9.4 Neuroplasticity in Adults

9.5 Disorders of Neurodevelopment:

• Experience plays a key

• Dire consequences when

 Ovum + sperm = zygote

• A patch of tissue on the dorsal

FIGURE 9.1: How the neural plate develops

• Once cells have been created through

 Two types of neural tube

FIGURE 9.3: Somal Translocation and Glia-Mediated Migration

• A structure dorsal to the

• Develops into the cells of the

• Cells migrate long distances

• After migration, cells align

• Mechanisms underlying axonal

• A series of chemical signals

• Such guidance molecules are

• Adjacent growing axons also

FIGURE 9.5: Sperry’s classic

• Pioneer growth cones – the

Formation of new synapses:

• High levels of cholesterol are

• Chemical signal exchange

• A variety of signals act on

• ~50% more neurons than arebrain

• Neurons die due to failure to compete for

• Neurotrophins – promote growth

• Both passive cell death

• Neurons that fail to

• Space left after

• Believed to underlie age-related

• No single theory explains the

• Prefrontal cortex plays a role in

• Permissive experiences: those that are necessary

• Instructive experiences: those that contribute to the

• Effects of experience on development are time-

• Early visual deprivation

Ocular Dominance Columns

• Neural activity regulates

• The brain changes and

• Three core symptoms:

– Reduced ability to interpret emotions

– Reduced capacity for social interaction

– Preoccupation with a single subject or

• Intensive behavioral therapy may improve

• Heterogenous – level of brain damage and

• Often considered a spectrum disorder

• Incidence: 6.6 per 1,000 births (or 1 in 166)

• Siblings of children with

• 60% concordance rate

Source: Bouchard & McGue, 1981

Understanding of brain structures involved in

• Incidence: 1 in every 7,500 births

• Evidence for a role of

template lightning ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette

template background texture ©istockphoto.com/Hedda Gjerpen

Chapter 09 Grandmother and grandchild smelling flowers

4 paper clip ©istockphoto.com/Jon Patton