BASICS OF RADIATION

AND
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
 Radiation

• Radiation is energy that travels through space or matter.

• Two types of radiation used in diagnostic imaging are
1. electromagnetic (EM) and
2. particulate.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• EM radiation includes:
(a) gamma rays,
(b) x-rays,
(c) visible light,
(d) radiofrequency
 EM RADIATION

• In this type, the energy is "packaged" in small units

known as photons or quanta.
• Visible light, radio waves, and x-rays are different
types of EM radiation.
• EM radiation has no mass, is unaffected by either
electrical or magnetic fields, and has a constant
speed in a given medium.
• EM radiation travels in straight lines; however, its
trajectory can be altered by interaction with matter.
• EM radiation is characterized by wavelength (λ),
frequency (v), and energy per photon (E)
 Particulate Radiation

• The other general type of radiation consists of small

particles of matter moving through space at a very high
velocity.

• Particle radiation differs from electromagnetic radiation

in that the particles consist of matter and have mass.

• Particle radiation is generally not used as an imaging

radiation because of its low tissue penetration.

• ex. Electron, alfa particles.

 Electromagnetic spectrum
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature
as light but of very much shorter wavelength
Electromagnetic radiation is the transport of energy
through space as a combination of electric and magnetic
fields.

Electromagnetic ( EM ) radiation is produced by a

charge ( charged particle ) being accelerated .
{ electrons are consider as standing waves around the
nucleus and therefore do not represent acclerating
charges. }

Any accelerating charge not bound to atom will emit

EM radiation .
 Electromagnetic radiation

According to the classical According to the quantum

theory Electromagnetic theory electromagnetic
radiation can be radiation can also be
considered as wave considered as a particles
motion . called photons
Wave concept of electromagnetic radiation

•All EM radiations travel with the speed of light

186000miles/sec, 3×10ˆ8 m/sec but they differ in wavelength
(λ) wavelength ↓ (ν) frequency ↑
•EM travel with the speed of light c , c=λν
•Wave concept of EMR explains why radiation may be reflected ,
refracted, diffracted and polarized .
 Particle concept of electromagnetic radiation
•Short EM waves like XRAYS react with matter as if they are
particles rather than waves.
•These particles are discrete bundles of energy and each bundle is
called quantum /photon.
•Photon travel at the speed of light.
•Amount of energy carried by each photon depends on frequency
of radiation.
•If frequency doubled energy doubled .
•Particle concept can explain the interaction with matter like
photoelectric and Compton effect .
Energy calculated E=hν
h= Planck's constant (6.62 ×10 ˆ-34 joules second )
ν = Frequency of radiation
Relationship between wavelength and
energy
Relationship between wavelength and frequency
ν= c/λ
c – velocity of light (~3×10^8 m/s)
also E= hν
Instead of ν
E =hc/λ ( h×c = 12.4)
E= 12.4/λ

•Energy of photon =ev

•X-ray measured in kilo ev , 1Kev = 1000 ev
So, X-rays are electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths in the range of 0.01 to 10
nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the
range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to
3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to
100 keV .
 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-
1923)

X-rays were first discovered in 1895 by the

German physicist William Roentgen, when using a
Crookes tube
He called them ‘x’ rays, ‘x’ for ‘unknown’.
The first x-ray
photograph:
Roentgen’s wife
Bertha’s hand
 X-ray tube

Basic elements of an X Ray source assembly

 Glass enclosure

•Vacuum: to control the

number and speed of the
accelerated electrons
independently.

• Pyrex glass is used.

 Cathode --------

•Negative terminal of
the x-ray tube is called
cathode or filament.
•Along with filament 2
other elements :
connecting wires and
focusing cup

Filament made of tungsten wire 0.2 mm diameter coiled to

form a vertical spiral 0.2 cm diameter and 1 cm length
 CATHODE --------

MADE OF TUNGSTEN + 1%-3% THORIUM ( better emission of electrons. )

 Filament and focusing cup
( Nickel )
• Modern tubes have two
filaments
1. Long One : higher
current/lower
resolution, larger
exposure
2. Short One : lower
current/higher
resolution. Focusing cup maintained
At one point only one at same negative potential
is used as the filament .
Focusing Cup

Cathode assembly of a dual-focus x-ray

tube. The small filament provides a
smaller focal spot and a radiograph with
greater detail, provided that the patient
does not move. The larger filament is
used for high-intensity exposures of short
duration.

1: long tungsten filament

2 : short tungsten filament
3 : real size cathode
 Focusing cup

Current across Mutual repulsion

Electron stream
tube one direction ↑Number of spread out
only electrons

Prevented by focusing cup – forces the Bombarding

electron stream to converge on the anode Large area of
in required shape and size anode
 Thermionic emission

When Current flows – wire heated

Absorbs thermal energy – electrons move a small

distance from the surface of metal

This escape is referred to as thermionic

emission
 Thermionic emission

Emission of electrons resulting from the absorption of

thermal energy – thermionic emission
(Tungeston heated >22000C)
Electron cloud surrounding the filament produced by
thermionic emission is termed “Edison effect”
 Space charge
•Collection of negatively charged electrons in the vicinity
of filament when no voltage applied between cathode
and anode – space charge
•Number of electrons in space charge remain constant
•Tendency of space charge to limit the emission of more
electrons from the filament is called space charge effect

Filament current →filament temperature →rate of

thermionic emission
 Space charge cloud

Temperature limited

Space charge cloud shield the electric field for tube voltages of 40kvp
and less ( space charge limited ) , above 40kvp space charge cloud is
overcome by voltage applied
 Tungsten

1. Thin wire
2. Strong
3. High melting point
4. Less tendency to vaporize
5. Long life expectancy

Z # 74

MELTING POINT= 3400 DEG. CELSIUS

 Anode +++++

Stationary anode
Tungsten target in copper anode
 Rotating anode+++

Spread the heat produced during an exposure over a large area of

anode – capable of withstanding high temperature of large exposures
 Anode +++ parts
1. Anode disk –tungsten
•3600rpm
•Beveled edge – line focus
•Target area increased but
effective focal size remains the
same.
2. Stator
3. Rotor
4. Bearings - metallic
lubricants (silver )
5. Stem - molybdenum

90%tungsten W and 10 % rhenium Re- ↑resistance to surface

roughening - ↑thermal capacity
 Anode +++
Modification of tube to improve speed of rotation and in
turn increased ability to withstand heat .

• As short as possible
1.Stem length • Decrease inertia

• 2 sets as far as possible

2.Bearings

• Decrease weight ( molybdenum + W Re alloy )

3.weight • Reduced inertia
 Focal spot

•True focal spot :Area of the tungsten target (anode)

that is bombarded by electrons from the cathode.
•The size and shape of focal spot is determined by the
size and shape of the electron stream which hits the
target.
•Heat uniformly distributed on focal spot
 Line focus principle
•Anode angle : defined as
the angle of the target
surface with respect to the
central ray in the x-ray field.
•Anode angle range :6°- 20°
•Line focus principle -
Effective focal spot size is
the length and width of the
focal spot projected down
the central ray in the x-ray
field .
 Properties of xrays
1. X-rays travel in straight lines.
2. X-rays are electrically neutral
3. X-rays are Polyenergetic and heterogeneous
4. X-rays travel at the speed of light -
electromagnetic radiation
5. X-rays are highly penetrating , invisible rays.
 Properties of x-rays
6. X-rays cannot be deflected by electric field or
magnetic field.
7. X-rays cannot be focused by lens.
8. Photographic film is blackened by X-rays.
9. Fluorescent materials glow when X-rays are directed
at them.
10. Produce chemical and biologic changes by ionization
and excitation.
11. Liberate minute amounts of energies while passing
through matter.
12. X-rays interact with matter produce photoelectric
and Compton effect.
Properties and Applications
X-Ray Machine
 Main Control Systems…
• High voltage generation
- Self-rectified ckt.(One Pulse)
- Single phase full wave rectified ckt.
- Three phase full wave rectified ckt.
- Six-rectifier ckt.
- Twelve rectifiers ckt.
• High frequency generators
• High Tension Cable
• Collimators & Grids
• Exposure Timing Systems
• Automatic Exposure Control
High Voltage Generation

Self-rectified ckt.
Single phase full wave rectifier ckt.
Three phase full wave bridge rectifier ckt. using six diodes
High Frequency Generators
High Tension Cable
 Collimators & Grids
Collimator Grid
Exposure Timing Systems

Digital Timer ckt.

Automatic Exposure Control

Photocell Method
Ionization Method
X-ray Image Intensifier System
 Computed tomography
• Computed tomography (or computerized axial
tomography) is an examination that uses X-ray and
computer to obtain a cross-sectional image of the
human body.
• In plain X-ray imaging, the film directly absorbs
penetrated X-rays. In CAT scanning, an electronic
device called a "detector array" absorbs the
penetrated X-rays, measures the X-ray amount, and
transmits the data to a computer system. A
sophisticated computer system, in turn, calculates
and analyzes data from each detector in each level,
and finally reconstructs multiple, two-dimensional,
cross-sectional images
 Computed tomography

Gantry and Table Operation console

Block diagram of CT scanner
Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI)
 MRI
• MRI is based on the nuclear properties of
hydrogen atoms in the body.
• It detects & processes signals generated when
hydrogen atoms are placed in a strong
magnetic field & excited by a resonant
magnetic excitation pulse.
• It can’t image bones, it is used for soft tissues
– vessels of brain,eyes,inner ear,heart,kidney,
abdominal vessels etc.
Block diagram of MRI system
 Basic components are…

• A magnet, provides a strong uniform, steady

,magnetic field B0. Commonly used superconducting
material is Niobium Titanium(NbTi).
• An RF transmitter, delivers radio frequency magnetic
field (i.e energy) to the sample.
• A gradient system, produce time varying magnetic
fields of controlled spatial non- uniformity
• A detection system, yields the output signal.
• An imager system, including the computer, which
reconstructs and displays the images.