PSYCHIATRIC

EMERGENCIES
By : Mrs Kiran Panthri
 DEFINITION
• Psychiatric emergency is a condition wherein
the patient has disturbances of thought, affect
and psychomotor activity leading to a threat to
his existence (suicide), or threat to the people
in the environment (homicide).
• This condition needs immediate intervention to
safeguard the life of the patient, bring down
the anxiety of the family members and
enhance emotional security to others in the
environment.
COMMON PSYCHIATRIC
EMERGENCIES
• Suicidal threat
• Violent or aggressive behavior or excitement
• Panic attacks
• Catatonic stupor
• Hysterical attacks
• Transient situational disturbances
 SUICIDAL THREAT
• In psychiatry a suicidal attempt is considered
to be one of the commonest emergencies.
• Suicide is a type of deliberate self-harm and is
defined as an intentional human act of killing
oneself.
Etiology
1. Psychiatric Disorders
• Major depression
• Schizophrenia
• Drug or alcohol abuse
• Dementia
• Delirium
• Personality disorder
Physical Disorders
• Patients with incurable or painful physical
disorders like, cancer and AIDS.

Psychosocial Factors
• Failure in examination
• Dowry difficulties
• Marital difficulties
• Loss of loved object
• Isolation and alienation from social groups
• Financial and occupational difficulties
Risk Factors for Suicide
• Age - males above 40 years of age, females
above 55years of age
• Sex - men have greater risk of completed
suicide.
• suicide is 3 times more common in men than
in women.
• women have higher rate of attempted suicide
• Being unmarried, divorced, widowed or
separated
• Having a definite suicidal plan
• History of previous suicidal attempts
• Recent losses
SUICIDAL TENDENCY IN
PSYCHIATRIC WARDS
Certain psychiatric disorders where the patient
may develop suicidal tendencies include:
• Major depression:
• due to pervasive and persistent sadness;
pessimistic cognitions concerning the past,
present and future; delusions of guilt,
helplessness, hopelessness and worthlessness;
and derogatory voices urging him to take his
life.
• The risk of suicide is more when the acute
phase has passed and the characteristic
psychomotor retardation has improved.
• This is so because the patient has more energy
to carry out his suicidal plans now, though he
might have been harboring them for quite
some time.
• Schizophrenia:
• the presence of associated depression, young
age and high levels of premorbid functioning
(especially during college education).
• People in this risk group are more likely to
realize the devastating significance of their
illness more than other groups of
schizophrenic patients do, and see suicide as a
reasonable alternative.
• Mania:
• occasionally commit suicide.
• This is usually the result of grandiose ideation:
the patient may believe that he is a great
person, or wish to prove his supernatural
powers.
• With this intent in mind, he may carryout some
dangerous activity that can cost him his life.
• Drug or alcohol abuse:
• Suicide among alcoholics can be due to
depression in the withdrawal phase.
• Also, the loss of friends and family, self-
respect, status, and a general realization of the
havoc alcohol has created in his life can cause
the individual to wish to die.
• Personality disorder: Individuals with
histrionic and borderline traits may
occasionally attempt suicide.

• Organic conditions:
• Conditions such as delirium and dementia due
to changes of mood like anxiety and
depression may also induce suicidal tendency.
Management
1. Be aware of certain signs which may indicate
that the individual may commit suicide, such
as: • suicidal threat • writing farewell letters
• giving away treasured articles • making a will
• closing bank accounts • appearing peaceful and
happy after a period of depression
• refusing to eat or drink, maintain personal
hygiene.
2. Monitoring the patient's safety needs:
• take all suicidal threats or attempts seriously and
notify psychiatrist
• search for toxic agents such as drugs/ alcohol
• do not leave the drug tray within reach of the
patient, make sure that the daily medication is
swallowed
• remove sharp instruments such as razor blades,
knives, glass bottles from his environment.
• remove straps and clothing such as belts, neckties
• do not allow the patient to bolt his door on the
inside, make sure that somebody accompanies him
to the bathroom
• patient should be kept in constant observation and
should never be left alone
• have good vigilance especially during morning
hours
• spend time with him, talk to him, and allow him to
ventilate his feelings
• encourage him to talk about his suicidal plans
/methods
• if suicidal tendencies are very severe, sedation
should be given as prescribed
3. Encourage verbal communication of
suicidal ideas as well as his/her fear and
depressive thoughts.
• A 'no suicidal' pact may be signed, which is a
written agreement between the client and the
nurse, that client will not act on suicidal
impulses, but will approach the nurse to talk
about them.
4. Enhance self-esteem of the patient by
focusing on his strengths rather than
weaknesses. His positive qualities should be
emphasized with realistic praise and
appreciation. This fosters a sense of self-worth
and enables him to take control of his life
situation.
5. Management of attempted suicide
• Assess for vital signs, check airway, clear
airway if necessary
• Start iv fluids if pulse is weak
• Prevent regurgitation and swallowing of
vomitus
• Emergency measures
 VIOLENT OR AGGRESSIVE
BEHAVIOR OR EXCITEMENT
• This is a severe form of aggressiveness.
During this stage, patient will be irrational,
uncooperative, delusional and assaultive.
• Etiology
• Organic psychiatric disorders like, delirium,
dementia, Wernicke-Korsakoff's psychosis.
• Other psychiatric disorders like, schizophrenia,
mania, agitated depression, withdrawal from
alcohol and drugs, epilepsy, acute stress reaction,
panic disorder and personality disorders.
Management
• An excited patient is usually brought tied up
with a rope or in chains. The first step should be
to remove the chains.
• A large proportion of aggression and violence
is due to the patient feeling humiliated at being
tied up in this manner.
• Talk to the patient and see if he responds. Firm
and kind approach by the nurse is essential.
• Usually sedation is given. Common drugs used
are: diazepam 10-20mg, IV; haloperidol 10-
20mg; chlorpromazine 50-100mg IM.
• Once the patient is sedated, take careful history
from relatives; rule out the possibility of
organic pathology.
• In particular check for history of convulsions,
fever, recent intake of alcohol, fluctuations of
consciousness.
• Carry out complete physical examination.
• Send blood specimens for hemoglobin, total
cell count, etc.
• Look for evidence of dehydration and
malnutrition. If there is severe dehydration,
glucose saline drip may be started.
• Have less furniture in the room and remove sharp
instruments, ropes, glass items, ties, strings,
match boxes, etc. from patient's vicinity.
• Keep environmental stimuli, such as lighting and
noise levels to a minimum; assign a single room;
limit interaction with others.
• Remove hazardous objects and substances; caution
the patient when there is possibility of an accident.
• Stay with the patient as hyperactivity increases to
reduce anxiety level and foster a feeling of
security.
• Redirect violent behavior with physical outlets
such as exercise, outdoor activities.
• Encourage the patient to 'talk out' his aggressive
feelings, rather than acting them out.
• If the patient is not calmed by talking down and
refuses medication, restraints may become
necessary.
• Following application of restraints, observe
patient every 15 minutes to ensure that
nutritional and elimination needs are met.
• Also observe for any numbness, tingling or
cyanosis in the extremities.
• It is important to choose the least restrictive
alternative as far as possible for these patients.
• Guidelines for self-protection when handling
an aggressive patient:
 never see a potentially violent person alone.
 keep a comfortable distance away from the
patient (arm length).
 be prepared to move, a violent patient can
strike out suddenly.
 maintain a clear exit route for both the staff
and patient.
 be sure that the patient has no weapons in his
possession before approaching him.
 if patient is having a weapon ask him to keep it
on a table or floor rather than fighting with him to
take it away.
 keep something like a pillow, mattress or blanket
wrapped around arm between you and the
weapon.
 distract the patient momentarily to remove the
weapon (throwing water in the patient's face,
yelling etc).
 give prescribed antipsychotic medications
 CATATONIC STUPOR

• Stupor is a clinical syndrome of akinesis and

mutism but with relative preservation of
awareness.
• Stupor is often associated with catatonic signs and
symptoms (catatonic withdrawal or catatonic
stupor).
• The various catatonic signs include mutism,
negativism, stupor, ambitendency, echolalia,
echopraxia, automatic obedience, posturing,
mannerisms, stereotypies, etc.
Management
• Ensure patent airway
• Administer IV fluids
• Collect history and perform physical
examination
• Draw blood for investigations before starting
any treatment
 DRUG TOXICITY
• Drug over-dosage may be accidental or suicidal.
• In either case all attempts must be made to find
out the drug consumed.
• A detailed history should be collected and
symptomatic treatment instituted.
• A common case of drug poisoning is lithium
toxicity.
• The symptoms include drowsiness, vomiting,
abdominal pain, confusion, blurred vision, acute
circulatory failure, stupor and coma, generalized
convulsions, oliguria and death.
• Blood Lithium Levels
• Therapeutic levels = 0.8 - 1.2 mEq/L (for
treatment of acute mania)
• Prophylactic levels = 0.6 - 1.2 mEq/L (for
prevention of relapse in bipolar disorder)
• Toxic lithium levels > 2.0mEq/L
Management
• Administer 02
• Start IV line
• Assess for cardiac arrhythmias •
Refer for hemodialysis
• Administer anticonvulsants
Management of Lithium Toxicity
• Discontinue the drug immediately.
• For significant short-term ingestions, residual
gastric content should be removed by induction of
emesis, gastric lavage and adsorption with activated
charcoal.
• If possible instruct the patient to ingest fluids. •
Assess serum lithium levels, serum electrolytes,
renal functions, ECG as soon as possible.
• Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance. •
In a patient with serious manifestations of
lithium toxicity, hemodialysis should be
initiated.
 CRISIS
• Crisis can be viewed as an integral component
of everyday life situations.
• A crisis may influence people's lives in
different ways.
• As a consequence of a crisis experience, the
individual may go down to a lower or less
healthy level of functioning than what was
before the crisis, or he may resume the same
level of functioning by repressing the crisis
and the related emotions.
• On the other hand, he may function at a
healthier level than prior to the crisis, because
the challenge of a crisis can bring out new
strengths, skills and coping mechanisms.
• Intervention at a crisis is extremely important
to prevent mental illness, because long-
standing problems make the person totally
incapable of handling the situation. If proper
guidance is provided at the correct time, the
victim will come out to fit better equipped to
handle future problems in life.
Definition
• Crisis is a state of disequilibrium resulting
from the interaction of an event with the
individual's or family's coping mechanisms,
which are inadequate to meet the demands of
the situation, combined with the individual's or
family's perception of the meaning of the event
(Taylor 1982).
• A sudden event in one’s life that disturbs
homeostasis, during which usual coping
mechanisms cannot resolve the problem
(Lagerquist, 2006).
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRISIS
● Crisis occurs in all individuals at one time or another
and is not necessarily equated with psychopathology.
● Crises are precipitated by specific identifiable events.
● Crises are personal by nature. What may be considered
a crisis situation by one individual may not be so for
another.
● Crises are acute, not chronic, and will be resolved in
one way or another within a brief period.
● A crisis situation contains the potential for
psychological growth or deterioration.
Crisis Proneness
• Hendricks (1985) suggests that certain
individuals are more prone to crisis than
others.
• The following are characteristics often found
in individuals who are regarded as being more
susceptible to crisis:
• Dissatisfaction with employment or lack of
employment.
• History of unresolved crisis.
• History of substance abuse.
• Poor self-esteem, unworthiness.
• Superficial relationship with others.
• Difficulty in coping with everyday situations.
• Under utilization of resources and support
systems.
• Aloofness and lack of caring
• It is important to note that individual
personality traits must also be considered in
conjunction with these characteristics.
• Crisis is defined by the individual; what crisis
for one is merely an occurrence for another.
• This factor is a critical component that must be
evaluated in relation to crisis prone
characteristics as well as personality traits.
Types of Crisis
• Maturational Crisis
• A maturational crisis is a stage in a person's life
where adjustment and adaptation to new
responsibilities and life patterns are necessary.
• The transition points where individuals move into
successive stage often generate disequilibrium.
Individuals are required to make cognitive and
behavioral changes and to integrate those physical
changes that accompany development.
• The extent to which individuals experience
success in the mastery of these tasks depends
on previous successes, availability of support
systems, influence of role models and
acceptability of new role by others.
• The transitional periods or events that are most
commonly identified as having increased crisis
potential are adolescence, marriage,
parenthood, midlife and retirement.
• Situational Crisis
• A situational crisis is one that is precipitated
by an unanticipated stressful event that creates
disequilibrium by threatening one's sense of
biological, social or psychological integrity.
• Examples of events that can precipitate
situational crises are premature birth, status
and role changes, death of a loved one,
physical or mental illness, divorce, change
in geographic location and poor
performance in school.
• Social Crisis
• Social crisis is accidental, uncommon, and
unanticipated and results in multiple losses and
radical environmental changes.
• Social crises include natural disasters like floods,
earthquakes, violence, nuclear accidents, mass
killings, contamination of large areas by toxic
wastes, wars, etc.
• This type of crisis is unlike maturational and
situational crisis because it does not occur in the
lives of all people
• Because of the severity of the effects of social
crisis coping strategies may not be effective.
• Individuals confronted with social crisis usually
do not have previous experience from which to
draw expertise.
• Support systems may be unavailable because they
may also be involved in similar situations. Mental
health professionals are called upon to act quickly
and provide services to large numbers of people
and in some cases, the whole community.
Phases of Crisis
• Caplan (1964)has described four phases
ofcrisis as described below:
Phase I
• Perceived threat acts as a precipitant that
generates increased anxiety. Normal coping
strategies are activated, and if unsuccessful,
the individual moves into Phase II.
Phase II
• The ineffectiveness of the Phase I coping
mechanisms leads to further disorganization.
• The individual experiences a sense of
vulnerability.
• The individual may attempt to cope with the
situation in a random fashion.
• If the anxiety continues and there is no
reduction, the individual enters Phase III.
Phase III
• Redefinition of the crisis is attempted and the
individual is most amenable to assistance in this
phase.
• New problem solving measures may also affect a
solution.
• Return to pre-crisis level of functioning may
occur.
• If problem solving is unsuccessful, further
disorganization occurs and the individual is said
to have entered Phase IV.
Phase IV
• Severe to panic levels of anxiety with
profound cognitive, emotional and
physiological changes may occur. Referral to
further treatment resources is necessary.
Signs and Symptoms of Crisis
• The major feeling in a crisis situation is
anxiety.
• The individual experiences a heavy burden of
free-floating anxiety.
• The anxiety may be manifested through
depression, anger and guilt.
• The victim will attempt to get rid of the
anxiety using various coping mechanisms,
healthy or unhealthy.
• The individual may become incapable of even
taking care of his daily needs and may neglect
his responsibilities.
• The individual may become irrational and
blame others for what has happened to him .
Resolution of Crisis
• Healthy resolution of a crisis depends upon the
following three factors:
1. Realistic appraisal of the precipitating event,
i.e. recognition of the relationship between the
event and feelings of anxiety is necessary for
effective problem-solving to occur
2. Availability of support systems.
3. Availability of coping measures over a
lifetime: A person develops a repertoire of
successful coping strategies that enable him to
identify and resolve stressful situations.
• There are three ways by which the individual
may resolve the crisis:
• Pseudo-resolution
• In this, the individual uses repression and pushes
out of consciousness the incident and the intense
emotions associated with it, so there will not be
any change in the level of functioning of the
individual.
• But in future, if and when a crisis occurs, the
repressed feelings may surface and influence the
feelings aroused by the new crisis.
• In such a situation, the particular crisis may be
more difficult to resolve because the feelings
associated with the earlier crisis are neither
expressed nor handled at that time.
• Unsuccessful Resolution
• In this, the victim uses pathological adaptation at any
phase of crisis, resulting in a lower level of functioning.
The victim, rather than accepting the loss and
reorganizing his life, keeps ruminating over the loss.
• An example is prolonged grief reaction, which results
in depression.
• Successful Resolution
• In this, the victim may go through the various phases of
crisis, but reaches Phase III where various coping
measures are utilized to resolve the crisis situation. The
individual develops better skills and problem solving
ability, which can be and will be used in various crisis
situations in future.
Crisis Intervention
• Crisis intervention is a technique used to help an
individual or family to understand and cope with the
intense feelings that are typical of a crisis.
• Nurses function as part of the interdisciplinary team in
the use of crisis intervention as a therapeutic modality.
• Nurses may employ crisis techniques in their work with
high-risk groups such as clients with chronic diseases,
new parents and bereaved persons.
• Nurses may also use crisis intervention in dealing with
intra-group staff issues and client management issues.
Aims of Crisis Intervention Technique
• To provide a correct cognitive perception of
the situation.
• To assist the individual in managing the
intense and overwhelming feeling sassociated
with the crisis
Intervention
A. Steps to provide a correct cognition perception
1. Assessment of the situation
• This may be achieved by direct questioning with
the purpose of identification of the problem and the
people involved.
• It is necessary to identify the support systems
available and to know the depth in which the
individual's feelings are affected.
• Assessment should also be done to identify the
strengths and limitations of the victim.
2. Defining the event
• The victim at times may not be able to identify
the precipitating event because of possible
denial, or due to reluctance to talk about it.
• It may be necessary for the therapist to review
the details of the incidents in the past 2 to 4
weeks in order to identify the event that
precipitated the crisis. Such are view will help
the victim becoming aware of the precipitating
event.
3. Develop a plan of action
• The victim and the people closely associated with him
should have active involvement in developing the plan of
action.
• The therapist must be aware that the victim may not be
in a condition to mentally comprehend complicated
information due to the overwhelming anxiety experienced
by him.
• The instructions given by the therapist must be simple
and clear, and too much information should not be
given at a time.
• The instructions may have to be written down, as the
victim may not be able to retain all the information.
B. Steps to assist the victim in managing the intense
feelings
1. Helping the individual to be aware of the feelings
• The victim needs help in identifying his own
feelings, which is the first step in handling them.
• The therapist should use appropriate
communication technique so that the victim will
feel comfortable to express his feelings without the
fear of being judged or criticized.
• The therapist should also be efficient in observing
verbal and non-verbal behavior of the victim, so that
he will be able to make a careful assessment of his
feelings.
2. Help the individual to attain mastery over the
feelings
• The individual should be given adequate support
and guidance through therapeutic process in order to
handle feelings associated with crisis but special
care should be taken not to give any false
reassurance.
 • He should not in any way be encouraged to blame
others, as this will only let him escape from taking
any responsibility.
• Care must be taken to ensure that the individual
does not develop too much dependency on the
therapist, which is unhealthy.
• After the victim and the support groups prepare
the plan of action under the guidance of the
therapist, it should be discussed with the victim and
the concerned others, so that they will have a clear
understanding of the methods of implementation of
the plan.
• To improve coping with the situation necessary
environmental manipulation must be done in
physical or interpersonal areas.
• It is advisable to have another appointment for
the victim to visit the therapist within a week, in
order to assess how the plan is working out, and
if needed, to revise and modify the plan.
PRINCIPLE OF CI
• Be specific, use concise statements and
avoiding overwhelming the pt with irrelevant
quoestions and excessive detail
• Encourage expression of feelings
• A calm, controlled presence reassures the pt
that the nurse can help
• Listen for facts and feelings, seeking
clarification, paraphrasing and reflection and
effective strategies
• Allow sufficient time for the individuals involved
to process information and task quoestion
• Help pt legitimize feelings by letting them know
that others in similar situations have experienced
comparable emotions
• Clarify distortions by getting persons to look at
the situations realistically, focus on what can be
changed versus what cannot
• Empower person by allowing them to make
informed choice
• Assist the person in confronting reality
• Encourage the person to focus on one implication
at a time

TECHNIQUES OF CRISIS INTERVENTIONS

• Catharsis
• Clarification
• Manipulation
• Reinforcement of behavior
• Support of defenses
• Increasing self esteem
• Exploration of solution

ROLE OF A NURSE IN CRISIS INTERVENTION

• Nurses respond to crisis situations on a daily basis.
• Crisis can occur in any unit for e.g.in general hospitals,
home settings, community health centers, schools,
offices and in private practice.
• Indeed, nurses may be called upon to function
as crisis helpers in any situation.
• Knowledge of crisis intervention techniques is
thus an important clinical skill of all nurses,
regardless of the setting or practice specialty.
Nursing Assessment
• The first step of crisis intervention is assessment.
During this phase the nurse collects data regarding
the following factors:
• Precipitating event or stressor
• Patient's perception of the event or stressor
• Nature and strength of the patient's support
systems, coping resources
• Level of psychological stress patient is
suffering from and the degree of impairment he
is experiencing
• Patient's previous strengths and coping
mechanisms
• During this phase the nurse begins to establish
a positive working relationship with the
patient.
Nursing Diagnoses
• The primary nursing diagnoses in crisis
intervention are:
• Ineffective individual coping
• Ineffective family coping
• Altered family process
• Post trauma response
• Ineffective individual coping refers to the inability
to ask for help, problem solving or meet role
expectations
• Ineffective family coping occurs when the
family's support systems are not successful and
family's economic or social well being is
threatened
• Altered family processes result when family
members are unable to adapt to the traumatic
experience constructively
• Post-traumatic response is a sustained painful
response to an overwhelming traumatic event.
Planning
• In planning the previously collected data is
analyzed and specific interventions are proposed.
• During this phase the nurse will undertake the
following activities:
• Dynamics underlying the present crisis are
formulated
• Alternative solutions to the problem are explored
• Steps for achieving the solutions are identified
• Environmental support needed to help the
patient is decided upon, coping mechanisms that
need to be developed and those which need to be
strengthened are identified
Implementation
• Environmental Manipulation
• includes interventions that directly change the
patient's physical or interpersonal situation.
These interventions may remove stress or
provide situational support. For example a
patient having difficulty in his job may take a
week of sick leave so that he can be removed
temporarily from that stress.
General Support
• The nurse uses warmth, acceptance, empathy and
reassurance to provide general support to the
patient.
Generic Approach
• The generic approach is designed to reach high
risk individuals and large groups as quickly as
possible.
• It applies a specific method to all individuals
faced with a similar type of crisis (e.g. in social
disasters).
• Debriefing is a method of generic approach.
• In debriefing method, disaster victims are helped
to recall events and clarify traumatic experiences.
• It attempts to place the traumatic event in
perspective, allows the individual to relive the
event in a factual way, encourages group support,
and provides information on normal reaction to
critical events.
• The goal of debriefing is to prevent the
maladaptive responses that may result if the
trauma is suppressed.
• Individual Approach
• It is a type of crisis intervention similar to the
diagnosis and treatment of a specific problem in a
specific patient.
• It is particularly useful in combined situational
and maturational crises and also beneficial when
symptoms include homicidal and suicidal risk.
• The nurse must use the intervention that is most
likely to help the patient develop an adaptive
response to the crisis.
Techniques of Crisis Intervention
1. Catharsis: The release of feelings that takes
place as the patient talks about emotionally charged
areas.
2. Clarification: Encouraging the patient to express
more clearly the relationship between certain events.
3. Manipulation: Using the patient's emotions,
wishes or values to benefit the patient in the
therapeutic process.
4. Reinforcement of behavior: Giving the patient
positive reinforcement to adaptive behavior.
5. Support of defenses: Encouraging the use of
healthy, adaptive defenses and discouraging those
that are unhealthy or maladaptive.
6. Increasing self-esteem: Helping the patient to
regain feelings of self worth.
7. Exploration of solutions: Examining alternative
ways of solving the immediate problem.
MODALITIES OF CRISIS INTERVENTION
• Community-based crisis intervention
modalities have recently been developed.
• They are based on the philosophy that the
health care team must be active and go out to
the patients rather than wait for the patients to
come to them.
• Nurses working in these modalities intervene
in a variety of community settings, ranging
from patients homes to street corners.
Mobile Crisis Programs
• Mobile crisis teams provide front-line
interdisciplinary crisis intervention to individuals,
families and communities.
• The nurse, who is a member of a mobile crisis
team, should be able to provide on-site
assessment, crisis management, treatment, referral
and educational services to patients, families and
the community at large.
• Nurses are thus able to ensure mental health care
for even the most under-served populations
efficiently and cost effectively.
• Telephone Contacts
• Crisis intervention is sometimes practiced by
telephone rather than through face-to-face
contacts.
• The nurse should have effective listening
skills to provide crisis intervention to victims.
Group Work
• People who have common traits on stressors will
forma group.
• The group provides an opportunity for members
to express common concerns and experiences,
foster hope and build mutual support.
• The nurse's role in the group is active, focal and
focused on the present.
• The nurse and the group help the patient solve the
problem and reinforce new problem solving
behavior
Disaster Response
• As part of the community, nurses are called on when an
adventitious or social crisis strikes the community.
• Floods, earthquakes, airplane crashes, fires, nuclear
accidents etc. precipitate large number of crises.
• The nurse has an important role in dealing with
psychosocial problems of disaster victims.
• The nurse participates in crisis operations and acts as a
case-finder for persons suffering from psychosocial
stress.
• It is important that nurses in the immediate
post disaster period go to places where victims
are likely to gather, such as hospitals, shelters,
morgues.
• During this period nurses use the generic
approach of crisis intervention so that as many
people as possible can receive help in a short
duration of time.
Victim Outreach Programs
• use crisis intervention techniques to identify the
needs of victims and then to connect them with
appropriate referrals and other resources.
• Nurses often work in victim outreach programs,
where victims are often seen immediately after
the crisis.
• These victims need thorough evaluation,
empathic support, and information and help with
the large system and social networking system.
Crisis Intervention Centers
• provide emergency psychiatric care and counseling to
victims, experiencing extreme stress or conflict, often
involving suicide attempts or drug or alcohol abuse.
• These centers, which are usually self contained units
within a hospital or community health care center,
provide services 24 hours a day.
• The services may be delivered directly on the premises,
or counseling may be provided over the telephone.
• The primary objective of crisis intervention centers is to
help the person cope with immediate problem and to
offer guidance and support for long-term therapy.
Health Education
• Nurses are involved in identifying people who are
at high risk for developing crisis and in teaching
coping strategies to avoid the development of
crisis.
• The public also needs education so that they can
identify those needing crisis services, be aware of
available services, change their attitude so that
people will feel free to seek services, and obtain
information about how others deal with potential
crisis producing problems.
 STRESS
Definition
• It is a non specific response of the body to any
kind of demand made upon it. (Selyle)
• Stress is the arousal of mind and body in
response to demands made upon them.
(schafer)
• The term stress means pressure and in human
life it represents an uneasy experience. It is an
unpleasant psychological and physiological
state caused due to some internal and or
external demands that go beyond our capacity.
STRESSOR is any person or situation that
produces anxiety response.
SOURCE OF STRESS
1. Environmental stressors : Noise, pollution,
traffic and crowding and weather.
2. Physiological stressors : Illness, injuries,
hormonal fluctuations, inadequate sleep or
nutrition.
3. Social stressors : Financial problems, work
demands, social events, losing a loved one etc.
4. Thoughts : Negative self talk, catastrophizing
and perfectionism.
5. Change of any kind can induce stress • Fear
of the new, the unknown • Feelings of personal
insecurity • Feelings of vulnerability • Fear of
rejection
6. Individual personalities that can induce
stress • Low self-esteem
• Feelings of over-responsibility
• Fear of loss of control
• Fear of failure, error, mistakes
• Chronic striving to be perfect
• Chronic guilt
• Chronic anger, hostility or depression
7. Interpersonal issues that can induce stress
• A lack of adequate support within the relationship
• A lack of healthy communication within the
relationship
• A sense of competitiveness between the people
involved
• Threats of rejection or disapproval between people
• Struggle for power and control in the relationship
• Poor intimacy or sexuality within the relationship
• Over dependency of one person on another
8. System (family, job, school, club,
organization issues that can induce stress)
• Lack of leadership
• Un co-operative atmosphere
• Competitive atmosphere
• Autocratic leadership
• Lack of team work
• Confused communication
RESPONSE BASED MODEL
• Selye’s stress response is characterized by a
chain or pattern of physiologic events called
the GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans
Selye, 1945)
• Homeostatic mechanisms are aimed at
counteracting the everyday stress of living.
• If they are successful, the internal environment
maintains normal physiological limits of
temperature, chemistry and pressure.
• If stress is extreme or long lasting, the normal
mechanisms may not be sufficient. In this case,
the stress triggers a wide-ranging set of bodily
changes called General Adaptation Syndrome
• Hans Selye, a pioneering stress theorist
developed GAS model that suggest that a
person response to stress consist of 3 stages
• ALARM
• RESISTANCE
• EXHAUSTION
When stress appears, it stimulates the
hypothalamus to initiate the GAS through two
pathways:
1. The first pathway is stimulation of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system and adrenal medulla. This produces an
immediate set of responses called the alarm
reaction.
2. The second pathway, called the resistance
reaction involves the anterior pituitary gland and
adrenal cortex; the resistance reaction is slower
to start, but its effects last longer.
Alarm Reaction
• The alarm reaction or fight-or-flight response
is the body's initial reaction to a stressor.
• It is a set of reactions initiated when the
hypothalamus stimulates the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system, and
the adrenal medulla.
• The alarm reaction is meant to counteract a
danger by mobilizing the body's resources for
immediate physical activity.
• The stress responses which characterize the
alarm reaction include the following:
• Heart rate and strength of cardiac muscle
contraction increases; this circulates blood
quickly to areas where it is needed to fight the
stress.
• Blood vessels supplying skin and viscera,
except heart and lungs, constrict; at the same
time blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles
and brain dilate; these responses route more
blood to organs active in the stress responses,
thus decreasing blood supply to organs which do
not assume an immediate active role
• RBC production is increased leading to an
increase in the ability of the blood to clot. This
helps control bleeding.
• Liver converts glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the bloodstream; this provides the
energy needed to fight the stressor.
• The rate of breathing increases and respiratory
passages widen to accommodate more air; this
enables body to acquire more oxygen.
• Production of saliva and digestive enzymes
reduces. This reaction takes place as digestive
activity is not essential for counteracting stress.
Alarm Reaction
• Stressor Hypothalamus
Sympathetic nervous system Adrenal
medulla Releases Catecholamines
(epinephrine and norepinephrine) Produces
Alarm reaction (fight-or-flight response)
Resistance Reaction
• The resistance reaction is the second stage in
the stress response.
• It is initiated by regulating hormones secreted
by the hypothalamus, and is along-term
reaction. These regulating hormones
Releasing Hormone (CRH),Growth Hormone
Releasing Hormone (GHRH)and Thyrotrophic
Releasing Hormone (TRH)
• CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to
increase its secretion of Adreno Corticotropic
Hormone (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to secrete more of its hormones.
The action of these hormones helps to control
bleeding, maintain blood pressure, etc.
• GHRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to
secrete Human Growth Hormone (HGH). TRH
causes the anterior pituitary to secrete Thyroid-
Stimulating Hormone (TSH). The combined
actions of (HGH) and TSH help to supply
additional energy to the body.
• The resistance reaction allows the body to
continue fighting a stressor for a long time.
Thus it helps us to meet emotional crisis,
perform strenuous tasks, fight infection, or
resist the threat of bleeding to death.
• Generally, the resistance reaction is successful
in helping us cope with a stressful situation,
and our bodies then return to normal.
Occasionally it fails to fight the stressor,
especially if it is too severe or long-lasting. In
this case, the General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS)moves into the stage of exhaustion.
 Stressor .!-

Hypothalamus
• Releases
CRH GHRH TRH
• Stimulates
Anterior pituitary
• Releases
• ACTH

HGH TSH

• r ACTH 1 Stimulates Adrenal cortex l Releases Adrenal hormones (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
• HGH .!Liver .!
• l TSH l Stimulates Thyroid gland 1 Supplies energy through increased breakdown of carbohydrates
Exhaustion Stage
• At this stage, the cells start to die, and the
organs weaken.
• A long-term resistance reaction puts heavy
demand on the body, particularly on the heart,
blood vessels and adrenal cortex, which may
suddenly fail under the strain.
• In this respect, ability to handle stressors is to a
large extent determined by the general health.
SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
• appear in many forms.
• Some symptoms only impact the person who is
directly experiencing stress, while other
symptoms may have an impact on our
relationship with others.
• Physical Symptoms • Muscle tension • Colds
or other illnesses • High blood pressure
• Rapid breathing or pounding of the heart
• Indigestion • Ulcers • Difficulty in sleeping
• Fatigue • Headaches, back or neck problems
• Increased smoking or drinking alcohol
• Backaches • Being more prone to accidents
Cognitive Symptoms
• Forgetfulness • Unwanted or repetitive thoughts •
Difficulty in concentration • Fear of failure • Self
criticism
Emotional Symptoms
• Irritability • Depression • Anger • Fear or anxiety
• Feeling overwhelmed • Mood swings
COPING RESOURCES
• Social and emotional support
• Person maintaining close IPR with friends and
families are able to use more adaptive
strategies.
• Social support includes both material
(providing resources) and emotional support
(listening and encouraging pt)
 COPING MECHANISM

• It refers to the process by which a person

attempts to manage stressful demands
• It has 2 major forms
• Focus on specific problems or try to find some
way of changing or avoiding it in the future,
this is called PROBLEM FOCUSED COPING
• Problem focused coping helps to change a
person’s behavior or situation or manage life
stressors
These are :
• Learning problem solving methods
• Applying the process to identify problems
• Role playing interactions with others
A person can also focus on alleviating the emotions
associated with the stressful situation called
EMOTION FOCUSED COPING
• It helps a person to relax and reduce the feelings
of stress
• It includes progressive muscle relaxation, deep
breathing, guided imagery and distractions such
as music or other activites
STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
1. Take a Deep Breath
• When you feel 'uptight' try taking a minute to
slow down and breath deeply.
• Breathe in through your nose and out through
your mouth.
• Try to inhale enough so that your lower
abdomen rises and falls. Count as you exhale -
slowly.
2. Practice Specific Relaxation Techniques
• Relaxation techniques are extremely valuable tools in
stress management.
• Most of the techniques like meditation, self hypnosis,
and deep muscle relaxation work in a similar fashion.
• In this state both the body and the mind are at rest and
the outside world is screened out for a time period.
• The practice of one of these techniques on a regular
basis can provide a wonderfully calming and relaxing
feeling that seems to have a lasting effect for many
people.
3. Manage Time
• One of the greatest sources of stress is poor time
management.
• Give priority to the most important ones and do
those first.
• If a particularly unpleasant task faces you, tackle
it early in the day and get over with it; the rest of
your day will include much less anxiety.
• Most importantly, do not overwork yourself,
schedule time for both work and recreation
4. Connect with Others
• A good way to combat sadness, boredom and loneliness
is to see out activities involving others.
5. Talk it Out
• When you feel something, try to express it.
• Share your feelings. "Bottled Up" emotions increase
frustration and stress.
• Talking with someone else can help clear your mind of
confusion so that you can focus on problem solving.
• Also consider writing down thoughts and feelings.
• Putting problems on paper can assist you in clarifying
the situation and allow you a new perspective.
6. Take a "Minute" Vacation
• Imagining a quiet country scene can take you out
of the turmoil of a stressful situation.
• When you have the opportunity, take a moment to
close your eyes and imagine a place where you
feel relaxed and comfortable.
• Notice all the details of your chosen place,
including pleasant sounds, smells and temperature
or change your mental "channel" by reading a
good book or playing relaxing music to create a
sense of peace and tranquility.
7. Monitor Your Physical Comfort
• Wear comfortable clothing. If it's too hot, go
somewhere where it's not.
• If your chair is uncomfortable, change it. If your
computer screen causes eye-strain or backaches,
change that, too.
• Don't wait until your discomfort turns into a real
problem. Taking five minutes to arrange back
support can save you several days of back pain.
8. Get Physical
• When you feel nervous, angry or upset, release the
pressure through exercise or physical activity.
• Running, walking or swimming are good options for
some people, while others prefer dance or martial arts.
• Working in the garden, washing your car, or playing
with children can relieve that "uptight" feeling, relax
you and often will actually energize you.
• Remember, your body and mind work together. Most
experts recommend doing 20 minutes of aerobic
activity daily will reduce stress.
9. Take Care of Your Body
• Healthy eating and adequate sleep fuels your mind as
well as your body.
• Avoid consuming too much caffeine and sugar.
• Take time to eat breakfast in the morning, it really will
help keep going through the day.
• Well-nourished bodies are better prepared to cope with
stress.
• If you are irritable and tense from lack of sleep or not
eating right, you will be less able to" go the distance in
dealing with stressful situations".
• Increase the amount of fruits and vegetables in daily
diet. Take time for personal interests and hobbies.
• Listen to one's body.
10.Laugh
• Maintain your sense of humor, including the ability to
laugh at yourself.
11.Know Your Limits
• There are many circumstances in life beyond your
control, consider the fact that we live in an imperfect
world. Know your limits.
• If a problem is beyond your control and cannot be
changed at the moment, don't fight the situation. Learn
to accept what is, for now, until such time when you
can change things.
12.Think Positively
• Refocus the negative to be positive. Make an effort to
stop negative thoughts.
13. Clarify Your Values and Develop a Sense of Life
Meaning
• Clarify your values and deciding what you really
want out of your life, can help you feel better
about yourself and have that sense of satisfaction
and centeredness that helps you deal with the
stresses of life. A sense of spirituality can help
with this.
14. Compromise
Consider co-operation or compromise rather than
confrontation. A little give and take on both sides
may reduce the strain and help you feel more
comfortable
15. Have a Good Cry
• A good cry during periods of stress can be a
healthy way to bring relief to your anxiety, and it
might prevent a headache or other physical
consequences of "bottling" things up.
16. Avoid Self Medication
• Alcohol and other drugs do not remove the
conditions that cause stress.
• Although they may seem to offer temporary
relief, these substances only mask or disguise
problems.
• In the long run, alcohol use increases rather than
decreases stress, by changing the way you think and
solve problems and by impairing your judgment and
other cognitive capacities.
• Medications should be taken only on the advice of a
doctor.
17. Look for the "Pieces of Gold"
• Around You Pieces of gold are positive or enjoyable
moments or interactions.
• These may seem like small events but as these "pieces
of gold" accumulate they can often provide a big lift to
energy and spirits and help you begin to see things in
new, more balanced way.
• Problem solving
• Assertiveness
• Positive self talk and self acceptance
• Learning skills needed for communication and
relationship
• Conflict resolution
• Time management
• Community living skills