Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Statistics Module 4, Testing Hypotheses, The Critical Ratio
Statistics Module 4, Testing Hypotheses, The Critical Ratio
5. Calculating a t score
Using Z scores to
evaluate data
Testing hypotheses:
the critical ratio. Shutterstock.com
Foundations of 4
Research Using Z scores
13.59% 13.59%
of of
cases cases
2.25% 2.25%
of of
cases cases
-3 -2 -1 0
0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Z scores: areas under the normal curve, 2 11
Research
+ 2.25%...
13.59% 13.59%
of of
cases cases
2.25% 2.25%
of of
cases cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Z scores: areas under the normal curve, 2 12
Research
13.59% 13.59%
of of
cases cases
2.25% 2.25%
of of
cases cases
-3 -2 -1
-1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Z scores: areas under the normal curve, 2 13
Research
13.59% 13.59%
of of
cases cases
2.25% 2.25%
of of
cases cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
+2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Z scores: areas under the normal curve, 2 14
Research
34.13% 34.13%
of of
cases cases
13.59% 13.59%
of of
cases cases
2.25% 2.25%
of of
cases cases
-3 -2
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
15
Evaluating Individual Scores
Foundations of
Research
5
Table 1?
5
Table 2? 4
5 High variance
4 (S = 2.4)
3
5 Less variance
4 (S = 1.15)
3
Here ‘6’ is the highest
2
score in the
1
distribution
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Scale Value
Foundations of Normal distribution; high variance 18
Research
About 70%
of cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Normal distribution; low variance 19
Research
X–M 2
Z= = = 1.74
S 1.15
Z = 1.74
About 90% of participants are
below this Z score
About 90% of
cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Evaluating scores using Z 20
Research
90% of cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
21
Foundations of
Research
Summary: evaluating individual scores
4:30 4:25 4:20 4:10 4:00 3:50 3:45 2:50 2:45 2:40 2:30 2:20 2:15 2:10
Mile times Marathon times (raw scores)
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Z Scores (standard deviation units) Z Scores (standard deviation units)
Foundations of 27
Research
Z=1 Z=4
4:30 4:25 4:20 4:10 4:00 3:50 3:45 2:50 2:45 2:40 2:30 2:20 2:15 2:10
Mile times Marathon times (raw scores)
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Z Scores (standard deviation units) Z Scores (standard deviation units)
28
Foundations of
Research
The critical ratio
Using Z scores to
evaluate data
Testing hypotheses:
the critical ratio.
Core concept:
Statistical Significance
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of 34
Research
Evaluating Research Questions
Means for 2 or more groups Is the difference between these Means more
than we would expect by chance? -- more
than the M difference between any 2
randomly selected groups?
distribution of scores 4
Treatment Difference
Critical Ratio =
Random Variance (Chance)
A.
B.
C.
D.
F.
Foundations of Quiz 2 40
Research
A. A Z or t score
greater than or less
B. than 1.98 is
C. consided it
significant.
D. This means that the
F. result would occur
< 5% of the time by
chance alone (p <
05).
Foundations of Quiz 2 41
Research
Statistically: is the
difference between Ms
more than we would
Control Experimental
expect by chance
Group M Group M alone?
Foundations of 43
Research M differences and the Critical Ratio.
Variance between
Mgroup1
Mgroup2 groups
What we would
Within-group
Within-group
variance, group2
expect by chance
given the variance
variance, group1
within groups.
control group experimental group
Foundations of 44
Research M differences and the Critical Ratio.
a
Mgroup2
Mgroup1
b
b
Low variance
Medium variance
High variance
Foundations of 46
Research Clickers!
A = All of them
B = Low variance only
C = Medium variance
D = High variance
E = None of them
Foundations of 47
Research Critical ratio and variances, 1
Critical ratio:
Critical ratio:
…also gets larger as the M difference increases,
even with same variance(s)
Foundations of 49
Research What Do We Estimate; experimental effect
Experimental
Effect Difference between group Ms
Error variance
M difference (between
control & experimental
is the same
groups)
in both data sets
Foundations of 50
Research What Do We Estimate: error term
Experimental
Effect
Error variance Variability within groups
Variances differ
a lot in the two
examples
Experimental
Effect Difference between group Ms
= Variability within groups
Error variance
(Mgroup1 - Mgroup2 ) - 0
=
Mgroup1 - Mgroup2
= =t
Variance grp1 Variance grp2
ngrp1 ngrp2
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 56
Research
Mgroup1 - Mgroup2
= =t
Variance grp1 Variance grp2
ngrp1 ngrp2
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 57
Research
Mgroup1 - Mgroup2
= =t
Variance grp1 Variance grp2
ngrp1 ngrp2
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 58
Research
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Critical ratio (Z score, t, …)
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 60
Research
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Critical ratio (Z score, t, …)
Foundations of Distributions 61
Research
Statistics Introduction 2.
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 62
Research
Statistics Introduction 2.
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 63
Research
How about
these scores?
Here are the same scores,
shown as Z scores.
Z scores are a form of Critical
Ratio
They are Standardized: Mean,
median, mode = .00
Standard Deviation (S) = 1.0
Foundations of Distributions of Critical Ratios 64
Research
CR
CR
CR CR CR CR CR CR
larger – CRs 0 larger + CRs
Foundations of 65
Research Distributions & inference
The probability of a
critical ratio +1.98 is t < -1.98 t > +1.98
low enough [p<.05]
that it likely indicates
a “real” experimental
effect.
< 2.4% of
We then reject the < 2.4% of cases
Null Hypothesis. cases
95% of
cases
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z or t Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of 67
Research Statistical significance & Areas under the normal curve, 2
The probability of Z = 1
occurring by chance is too Z = -1.0 Z = +1.0
high for us to conclude
that the results are “real”
About 68% of
(i.e., “statistically
significant”). Occurs
cases
about 16%
We then accept the Null …about
of the time
Hypothesis and assume 16% by
by chance
that any effect is by chance
chance alone.
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z Scores
(standard deviation units)
Foundations of Summary 68
Research
Statistical decisions
follow the critical ratio: