CONCRETE

TECHNOLOGY
WORKABILITY TESTS
Flow Table Test
 MIXING
 HAND MIXING

HAND MIXING

MACHINE MIXING
SEGREGATION AND BLEEDING
BLEEDING
 FINISHIING

SURFACE
FINISHING
APPLIED FINISH

PEA GRAVE
AGGREGATE
ROUGH CAST FINISH
NON SLIP
FINISH
CURING
SHRINKAGE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS
SURFACE HARDNESS

WILLIAM PISTOL
PENETRATION TEST

PULL OUT
TEST
 ULTRASONIC
PULSE VELOCITY
MECHANICAL SONIC VELOCITY TESTS
 3. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

 Durability of concrete is defined by the

American Concrete Institute in ACI 116R as
its ability to resist weathering action, chemical
attack, abrasion and other conditions of
service.
 Durability of concrete can be also defined as
the capability of the material by itself of
keeping the original properties for a certain
period; durable concrete may be defined as
concrete that retains its original form, quality,
and serviceability when exposed to its
environment.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

 Seawater Exposure: Concrete has been used in seawater

exposures for decades with excellent performance. However,
special care in mix design and material selection is necessary
for these severe environments. A structure exposed to
seawater or seawater spray is most vulnerable in the tidal or
splash zone where there are repeated cycles of wetting and
drying and/or freezing and thawing.
Sulfates and chlorides in seawater require the use of low
permeability concrete to minimize steel corrosion and sulfate
attack.
 Abrasion Resistance:
Concrete is resistant to the abrasive affects of ordinary
weather. Examples of severe abrasion and erosion are
particles in rapidly moving water, floating ice, or areas where
steel studs are allowed on tires.
Abrasion resistance is directly related to the strength of the
concrete. For areas with severe abrasion, studies show that
concrete with compressive strengths of 12,000 to 19,000 psi
work well.
 Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion: Chloride
present in plain concrete that does not contain steel is
generally not a durability concern. Concrete protects
embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline
nature. The high pH environment in concrete (usually
greater than 12.5) causes a passive and non corroding.
 Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR):
ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive forms of
silica in aggregates and potassium and sodium alkalis,
mostly from cement, but also from aggregates, pozzolans,
admixtures, and mixing water. The reactivity is
potentially harmful only when it produces significant
expansion. Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate
reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling
joints, or movement of portions of a structure.
ASR can be controlled through proper aggregate selection
and/or the use of supplementary cementitious materials
(such as fly ash or slag cement) or blended cements proven
by testing to control the reaction protective oxide film to
form on steel.
 High Humidity and Wind-Driven Rain:
Concrete is resistant to wind-driven rain and moist outdoor air in
hot and humid climates because it is impermeable to air
infiltration and wind-driven rain. Moisture that enters a building
must come through joints between concrete elements.
Annual inspection and repair of joints will minimize this potential.
More importantly, if moisture does enter through joints, it will not
damage the concrete. Good practice for all types of wall
construction is to have permeable materials that breathe (are
allowed to dry) on at least one surface and to not encapsulate
concrete between two impermeable surfaces. Concrete will dry out
if not covered by impermeable treatments.
 Ultraviolet Resistance: The ultraviolet portion of solar radiation
does not harm concrete. Using colored pigments in concrete retains
the color in concrete long after paints have faded due to the sun’s
effects.
 Inedible: Vermin and insects cannot destroy concrete because it is
inedible. Some softer materials are inedible but still provide
pathways for insects. Due to its hardness, vermin and insects will
not bore through concrete. Gaps in exterior insulation to expose the
concrete can provide access for termite inspectors.
 Moderate to Severe Exposure Conditions for Concrete: The
following are important exposure conditions and deterioration
mechanisms in concrete. Concrete can withstand these effects when
properly designed. The Specifier’s Guide for Durable Concrete is
intended to provide sufficient information to allow the practitioner
to select materials and mix design parameters to achieve durable
concrete in a variety of environments.
 Resistance to Freezing and Thawing: The most potentially
destructive weathering factor is freezing and thawing while the
concrete is wet, particularly in the presence of deicing chemicals.
Deterioration is caused by the freezing of water and subsequent
expansion in the paste, the aggregate particles, or both.
With the addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is
highly resistant to freezing and thawing. During freezing, the water
displaced by ice formation in the paste is accommodated so that it is
not disruptive; the microscopic air bubbles in the paste provide
chambers for the water to enter and thus relieve the hydraullic
pressure generated.
Concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio (0.40 or lower) is
more durable than concrete with a high water-cementitious ratio
(0.50 or higher).
 Chemical Resistance: Chemical attacks on concrete
structures causes deterioration of structure and its
durability is affected. The life of structure reduces and it
can lead to failure of structures.
 Resistance to Sulfate
 Settlement and Bleeding
 Plastic Shrinkage Volume
 Changes due to Moisture Changes
 Effect of Cement and Water Contents on
Shrinkage
 Properties of Cement
 Type and Gradation of Aggregate
 Effect of Admixtures
 Rate of Drying
 Carbonation Shrinkage
 Creep of Concrete
 Chlorides attacks on concrete structures:
High concentrations of chloride ions cause corrosion of
reinforcement and the products of corrosion can disrupt the
concrete. Chlorides can be introduced into the concrete either
during or after construction as follows.
(i) Before construction Chlorides can be admitted in admixtures
containing calcium chloride, through using mixing water
contaminated with salt water or improperly washed marine
aggregates.
(ii) After construction Chlorides in salt or sea water, in airborne
sea spray and from de-icing salts can attack permeable
concrete causing corrosion of reinforcement.
In the past to add calcium chloride to concrete to increase the
rate of hardening is common. The code(BS8110: Part 1, clause
6.2.5.2) now recommends that calcium chloride and chloride-
based admixtures should not be added
to reinforced concrete containing embedded metals
Sulphates attacks on concrete structures:
 Sulphates are present in most cements and some
aggregates. Sulphates may also be present in soils,
groundwater and sea water, industrial wastes and acid rain.
The products of sulphate attack on concrete occupy a larger
space than the original material and this causes the
concrete to disintegrate and permits corrosion of steel to
begin.
 BS8110: Part 1, clause 6.2.5.3, states that the total water-
soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix expressed as
SO3 should not exceed 4% by mass of cement in the mix.
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement should be used where
sulphates are present in the soil, water or atmosphere and
come into contact with the concrete.
 Super-sulphated cement, made from blast furnace slag,can
also be used although it is not widely available. This cement
can resist the highest concentrations of sulphates.
Carbonation of concrete structures:
 Carbonation is the process by which carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere slowly transforms calcium hydroxide into
calcium carbonate in concrete. The concrete itself is not
harmed and increases in strength, but the reinforcement
can be seriously affected by corrosion as a result of this
process.
 Normally the high pH value of the concrete prevents
corrosion of the reinforcing bars by keeping them in a
highly alkaline environment due to the release of calcium
hydroxide by the cement during its hydration. Carbonated
concrete has a pH value of 8.3 while the passivation of steel
starts at a pH value of 9.5.
 The depth of Carbonation in good dense concrete is about 3
mm at an early stage and may increase to 6–10 mm after
30–40 years.
 Poor concrete may have a depth of Carbonation of 50 mm
after say 6–8 years. The rate of Carbonation depends on
time, cover, concrete density, cement content, water-to-
cement ratio and the presence of cracks.
 Alkali—silica reaction in concrete structures:
 A chemical reaction can take place between alkali in
cement and certain forms of silica in aggregate. The reaction
produces a gel which absorbs water and expands in volume,
resulting in cracking and disintegration of the concrete.
 BS8110: Part 2, clause 6.2.5.4, states that the reaction only
occurs when the following are present together:
 a high moisture level in the concrete
 cement with a high alkali content or some other source of
alkali-aggregate containing an alkali-reactive constituent
The code recommends that the following precautions be taken
if uncertainty exists:
 Reduce the saturation of the concrete;
 Use low alkali Portland cement and limit the alkali content of
the mix to a low level;
 Use replacement cementitious materials such as blast furnace
slag or pulverized fuel ash. Most normal aggregates behave
satisfactorily.
 Acids attacks on concrete structures:
 Portland cement is not acid resistant and acid attack
may remove part of the set cement. Acids are formed by
the dissolution in water of carbon dioxide or sulphur
dioxide from the atmosphere. Acids can also come from
industrial wastes. Good dense concrete with adequate
cover is required and sulphate-resistant cements should
be used if necessary.