PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,

Florence-Darlington Technical College

CHAPTER 9
The
Endocrine
System
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Endocrine System

•Second controlling system of the body

•Nervous system is the fast-control system
•Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that
are released into the blood
•Hormones control several major processes
•Reproduction
•Growth and development
•Mobilization of body defenses
•Maintenance of much of homeostasis
•Regulation of metabolism
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Hormone Overview

•Hormones are produced by specialized cells

•Cells secrete hormones into extracellular
fluids
•Blood transfers hormones to target sites
•These hormones regulate the activity of other
cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Chemistry of Hormones

•Hormones are classified chemically as

•Amino acid–based, which includes
•Proteins
•Peptides
•Amines
•Steroids—made from cholesterol
•Prostaglandins—made from highly active
lipids

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Mechanisms of Hormone Action

•Hormones affect only certain tissues or

organs (target cells or target organs)
•Target cells must have specific protein
receptors
•Hormone-binding alters cellular activity

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Effects Caused by Hormones

•Changes in plasma membrane permeability or

electrical state
•Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
•Activation or inactivation of enzymes
•Stimulation of mitosis
•Promotion of secretory activity

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Chemistry of Hormones

•Two mechanisms in which hormones act

•Direct gene activation
•Second-messenger system

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Direct Gene Activation (Steroid Hormone
Action)
•Diffuse through the plasma membrane of
target cells
•Enter the nucleus
•Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
•Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
•Activate genes that result in synthesis of new
proteins

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-
receptor complex
4

DNA

mRNA
5
New
protein

Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6

(a) Steroid hormone action

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a
 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone
1

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 1

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 2

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-
receptor complex

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 3

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-
receptor complex
4

DNA

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 4

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-
receptor complex
4

DNA

mRNA
5

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 5

 Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-
receptor complex
4

DNA

mRNA
5
New
protein

Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1a, step 6

 Second-Messenger System (Nonsteroid
Hormone Action)
•Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
•Hormone does not enter the cell
•Sets off a series of reactions that activates an
enzyme
•Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-
messenger molecule (such as cAMP)
•Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger) Enzyme
ATP

1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger

Receptor 4
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1b
 Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger)

Receptor
protein

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1b, step 1

 Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger) Enzyme

1
2

Receptor
protein

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1b, step 2

 Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger) Enzyme
ATP

1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger

Receptor
protein

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1b, step 3

 Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger) Enzyme
ATP

1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger

4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.1b, step 4

 Control of Hormone Release

•Hormone levels in the blood are mostly

maintained by negative feedback
•A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
triggers the release of more hormone
•Hormone release stops once an appropriate
level in the blood is reached

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

•Most common stimuli

•Endocrine glands are activated by other
hormones
•Examples:
•Anterior pituitary hormones travel to target
glands, such as the thyroid gland, to prompt
the release of a particular hormone, such as
thyroid hormone

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 (a) Hormonal stimulus

1 The hypothalamus secretes

hormones that…
Hypothalamus

2 …stimulate
the anterior Anterior
pituitary pituitary
gland to gland
secrete
hormones
that…

Thyroid Adrenal Gonad

gland cortex (Testis)

3 …stimulate other endocrine

glands to secrete hormones
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.2a
 Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

•Changing blood levels of certain ions

stimulate hormone release
•Humoral indicates various body fluids such as
blood and bile
•Examples:
•Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are
produced in response to changing levels of
blood calcium levels
•Insulin is produced in response to changing
levels of blood glucose levels

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 (b) Humoral stimulus
1 Capillary blood contains low
concentration of Ca2+, which
stimulates…

Capillary Thyroid gland

(low Ca2+ (posterior view)
in blood)

Parathyroid Parathyroid
glands PTH glands
2 …secretion of parathyroid
hormone (PTH) by parathyroid
glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.2b

 Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

•Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release

•Most are under the control of the sympathetic
nervous system
•Examples:
•The release of norepinephrine and
epinephrine by the adrenal medulla

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 (c) Neural stimulus
1 Preganglionic sympathetic
fiber stimulates adrenal medulla
cells…
CNS (spinal cord)

Preganglionic
sympathetic fibers

Medulla of
adrenal
gland

Capillary

2 …to secrete catecholamines

(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.2c
 Major Endocrine Organs

•Pituitary gland
•Thyroid gland
•Parathyroid glands
•Adrenal glands
•Pineal gland
•Thymus gland
•Pancreas
•Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)
•Hypothalamus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.3

 Pituitary Gland

•Size of a pea
•Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the
brain
•Protected by the sphenoid bone
•Has two functional lobes
•Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
•Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
•Often called the “master endocrine gland”

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Six anterior pituitary hormones

•Two affect non-endocrine targets
•Growth hormone
•Prolactin
•Four stimulate other endocrine glands
(tropic hormones)
•Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic
hormone)
•Adrenocorticotropic hormone
•Two gonadotropic hormones
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Characteristics of all anterior pituitary

hormones
•Proteins (or peptides)
•Act through second-messenger systems
•Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly
negative feedback

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Releasing hormones Hypothalamus
secreted into portal
circulation
Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary
Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary
hormone (LH)
glands Thyroid

Testes or ovaries

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.4

 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Growth hormone
•General metabolic hormone
•Major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones
•Plays a role in determining final body size
•Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
•Causes fats to be broken down for a source
of energy

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Growth hormone (GH) disorders

•Pituitary dwarfism results from
hyposecretion of GH during childhood
•Gigantism results from hypersecretion of
GH during childhood
•Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of
GH during adulthood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 • Pituitary dwarf (left), Giant (center), Normal height woman (right)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.5

 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Prolactin (PRL)
•Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
•Function in males is unknown
•Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
•Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex
•Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
•Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Gonadotropic hormones
•Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
•Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in
ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
•Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
• Stimulates testosterone production in
males
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Pituitary–Hypothalamus Relationship

•Hormonal release is regulated by releasing

and inhibiting hormones produced by the
hypothalamus
•Hypothalamus produces two hormones
•These hormones are transported to
neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitary
•Oxytocin
•Antidiuretic hormone
•The posterior pituitary is not strictly an
endocrine gland, but does release hormones

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

•Oxytocin
•Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
•Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

•Inhibits urine production by promoting water
reabsorption by the kidneys
•In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
leading to increased blood pressure
•Also known as vasopressin

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Uterine muscles Figure 9.6
 Thyroid Gland

•Found at the base of the throat

•Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
•Produces two hormones
•Thyroid hormone
•Calcitonin

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Thyroid cartilage Epiglottis

Common carotid
artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland

Trachea Left subclavian

artery
Brachiocephalic Left lobe of
artery thyroid gland

Aorta

(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view Figure 9.7a
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Thyroid Gland

•Thyroid hormone
•Major metabolic hormone
•Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones
•Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid
follicles
•Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at
target tissues

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells

Parafollicular cell
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. follicles (125×) Figure 9.7b
 Thyroid Gland

•Thyroid hormone disorders

•Goiters
•Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of
iodine
•Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
•Cretinism
•Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
•Results in dwarfism during childhood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.8
 Thyroid Gland

•Thyroid hormone disorders (continued)

•Myxedema
•Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
•Results in physical and mental
slugishness
•Graves’ disease
•Caused by hyperthyroidism
•Results in increased metabolism, heat
intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
and exophthalmos
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.9
 Thyroid Gland

•Calcitonin
•Decreases blood calcium levels by causing
its deposition on bone
•Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
•Produced by parafollicular cells
•Parafollicular cells are found between the
follicles

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells

Parafollicular cell
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. follicles (125×) Figure 9.7b
 Parathyroid Glands

•Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid

•Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
•Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium
from bone
•Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
•Raise calcium levels in the blood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.

Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml

BALANCE BALANCE

Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and glands Parathyroid
release Ca2+ glands release
into blood. parathyroid
PTH hormone (PTH).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.10

 Adrenal Glands

•Sit on top of the kidneys

•Two regions
•Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has
three layers
•Mineralocorticoids secreted by outermost
layer
•Glucocorticoids secreted by middle layer
•Sex hormones secreted by innermost
layer
•Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Adrenal gland Cortex
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex

Sex hormone
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.11

 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

•Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

•Produced in outer adrenal cortex
•Regulate mineral content in blood
•Regulate water and electrolyte balance
•Target organ is the kidney
•Production stimulated by renin and
aldosterone
•Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
blood
Hypothalamus
Decreased
Corticotropin-
blood volume
releasing hormone
and/or blood
pressure Anterior pituitary
Increased
ACTH blood pressure
Kidney or blood volume

Renin Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II
Direct
stimulating Inhibitory
effect effect

Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex
Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules

Increased absorption Increased blood

of Na+ and water; volume and
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. increased K+ excretion blood pressure Figure 9.12
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

•Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and

cortisol)
•Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal
cortex
•Promote normal cell metabolism
•Help resist long-term stressors
•Released in response to increased blood
levels of ACTH

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Short term Stress More prolonged
Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary

ACTH Adrenal
Preganglionic
cortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers
Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

Short-term stress response Long-term stress response

Catecholamines 1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats
2. Increased blood pressure
(epinephrine and and water by kidneys converted to
3. Liver converts glycogen
norepinephrine) to glucose and releases 2. Increased blood glucose or broken
glucose to blood volume and blood down for energy
4. Dilation of bronchioles pressure 2. Increased blood
5. Changes in blood flow sugar
patterns, leading to 3. Suppression of
increased alertness and
immune system
decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.13

 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

•Sex hormones
•Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal
cortex
•Small amounts are made throughout life
•Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are
made but some estrogens (female sex
hormones) are also formed

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Adrenal Glands

• Adrenal cortex disorders

• Addison’s disease
• Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal
cortex hormones
• Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak,
burnout, susceptibility to infection
• Hyperaldosteronism
• May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
• Excess water and sodium are retained
leading to high blood pressure and edema
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Adrenal Glands

• Adrenal cortex disorders

• Cushing’s syndrome
• Results from a tumor in the middle cortical
area of the adrenal cortex
• “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper
back, high blood pressure, hyperglycemia,
weakening of bones, depression
• Masculinization
• Results from hypersecretion of sex
hormones
• Beard and male distribution of hair growth
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

•Produces two similar hormones

(catecholamines)
•Epinephrine (adrenaline)
•Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
•These hormones prepare the body to deal
with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by
•Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
•Dilating small passageways of lungs

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Adrenal gland Cortex
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex

Sex hormone
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.11

 Pancreatic Islets

•The pancreas is a mixed gland and has both

endocrine and exocrine functions
•The pancreatic islets produce hormones
•Insulin—allows glucose to cross plasma
membranes into cells from beta cells
•Glucagon—allows glucose to enter the
blood from alpha cells
•These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Stomach

Pancreas
(a) Figure 9.14a
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Exocrine
cells of
pancreas

Pancreatic
islets
(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.14b
 Exocrine Alpha (α)
cells of cells
pancreas

Capillaries

Cord of beta (β) cells secreting

insulin into capillaries
(c) Figure 9.14c
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells

Insulin-secreting cells Insulin Tissue cells

of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into the blood
Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes
as glycogen

Stimulus
Blood
glucose level
(e.g., after
eating four
Stimulus
jelly doughnuts)
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after
Blood glucose rises skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes

Glucagon-releasing
Liver breaks Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
down glycogen activated; release
stores and Liver glucagon into blood
releases Glucagon
glucose to the
blood
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.15
 Pineal Gland

•Found on the third ventricle of the brain

•Secretes melatonin
•Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep
cycles
•Believed to coordinate the hormones of
fertility in humans

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.3

 Thymus Gland

•Located posterior to the sternum

•Largest in infants and children
•Produces thymosin
•Matures some types of white blood cells
•Important in developing the immune system

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Gonads

•Ovaries
•Produce eggs
•Produce two groups of steroid hormone
•Estrogens
•Progesterone
•Testes
•Produce sperm
•Produce androgens, such as testosterone

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.3

 Hormones of the Ovaries

•Estrogens
•Stimulate the development of secondary
female characteristics
•Mature female reproductive organs
•With progesterone, estrogens also
•Promote breast development
•Regulate menstrual cycle

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Ovaries

•Progesterone
•Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
•Helps in the implantation of an embryo in
the uterus
•Helps prepare breasts for lactation

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hormones of the Testes

•Produce several androgens

•Testosterone is the most important androgen
•Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
•Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
•Required for sperm cell production

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
•Parts of the small intestine
•Parts of the stomach
•Kidneys
•Heart
•Many other areas have scattered endocrine
cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Endocrine Function of the Placenta

•Produces hormones that maintain the

pregnancy
•Some hormones play a part in the delivery of
the baby
•Produces human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) in addition to estrogen, progesterone,
and other hormones

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System
•Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until
old age
•Menopause is brought about by lack of
efficiency of the ovaries
•Problems associated with reduced estrogen
are common
•Growth hormone production declines with
age
•Many endocrine glands decrease output
with age

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.