INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
• COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AS "A PROCESS WHERE COMMUNITY
MEMBERS COME TOGETHER TO TAKE COLLECTIVE ACTION AND
GENERATE SOLUTIONS TO COMMON PROBLEMS."

• IT IS A BROAD TERM GIVEN TO THE PRACTICES OF

CIVIC LEADERS, ACTIVISTS, INVOLVED CITIZENS
AND PROFESSIONALS TO IMPROVE VARIOUS
ASPECTS OF COMMUNITIES, TYPICALLY AIMING TO
BUILD STRONGER AND MORE RESILIENT LOCAL
COMMUNITIES.
• A PRACTICE-BASED PROFESSION AND AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE THAT PROMOTES
PARTICIPATIVE DEMOCRACY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, RIGHTS, ECONOMIC
OPPORTUNITY, EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE, THROUGH THE ORGANISATION, EDUCATION
AND EMPOWERMENT OF PEOPLE WITHIN THEIR COMMUNITIES, WHETHER THESE BE OF
LOCALITY, IDENTITY OR INTEREST, IN URBAN AND RURAL SETTINGS.

• COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT SEEKS TO EMPOWER INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS OF PEOPLE

WITH THE SKILLS THEY NEED TO EFFECT CHANGE WITHIN THEIR COMMUNITIES.

• THESE SKILLS ARE OFTEN CREATED THROUGH THE FORMATION OF SOCIAL GROUPS
WORKING FOR A COMMON AGENDA. COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS MUST UNDERSTAND
BOTH HOW TO WORK WITH INDIVIDUALS AND HOW TO AFFECT COMMUNITIES' POSITIONS
WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF LARGER SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT; FOCUSES ON
RELATIONSHIPS AT THE CORE OF
FACILITATING "UNDERSTANDING AND
EVALUATION, INVOLVEMENT, EXCHANGE
OF INFORMATION AND OPINIONS, ABOUT A
CONCEPT, ISSUE OR PROJECT, WITH THE AIM
OF BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL AND
ENHANCING SOCIAL OUTCOMES THROUGH
DECISION-MAKING”
WOMEN SELF-HELP GROUP; FOCUSING ON
THE CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN
SETTLEMENT GROUPS.

LARGE GROUP CAPACITATION; AN ADULT

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
APPROACH GROUNDED IN THE ACTIVITY
OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LARGE GROUP
FOCUSING ON LARGE GROUPS OF
UNEMPLOYED OR SEMI-EMPLOYED
PARTICIPANTS, MANY OF WHOM WITH
LOWER LEVELS OF LITERACY (LLLS)
SOCIAL CAPITAL FORMATION; FOCUSING ON BENEFITS
DERIVED FROM THE COOPERATION BETWEEN
INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS.

NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION; WHEN A GROUP OF

PEOPLE TAKE ACTION TO REVEAL AN EXISTING PROBLEM,
HIGHLIGHT AN ALTERNATIVE, OR DEMONSTRATE A
POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO A SOCIAL ISSUE WHICH IS NOT
BEING ADDRESSED THROUGH TRADITIONAL SOCIETAL
INSTITUTIONS (GOVERNMENTS, RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS OR ESTABLISHED TRADE UNIONS) ARE
NOT ADDRESSING TO THE SATISFACTION OF THE DIRECT
ACTION PARTICIPANTS.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, FOCUSING ON THE
"DEVELOPMENT" OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AS
MEASURED BY THEIR ECONOMIES, ALTHOUGH IT
INCLUDES THE PROCESSES AND POLICIES BY
WHICH A NATION IMPROVES THE ECONOMIC,
POLITICAL, AND SOCIAL WELL-BEING OF ITS
PEOPLE.

COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT(CED);

AN ALTERNATIVE TO CONVENTIONAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT WHICH ENCOURAGES USING
LOCAL RESOURCES IN A WAY THAT ENHANCES
ECONOMIC OUTCOMES WHILE IMPROVING
SOCIAL CONDITIONS.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; WHICH SEEKS TO ACHIEVE,
IN A BALANCED MANNER, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT,
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION OUTCOMES.

COMMUNITY-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT (CDD),

AN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT MODEL WHICH SHIFTS
OVERRELIANCE ON CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS TO LOCAL
COMMUNITIES.
ASSET-BASED COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT(ABCD); IS A METHODOLOGY
THAT SEEKS TO UNCOVER AND USE THE
STRENGTHS WITHIN COMMUNITIES AS A MEANS
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.

FAITH-BASED COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT;

WHICH UTILIZES FAITH-BASED ORGANIZATIONS
TO BRING ABOUT COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
OUTCOMES.
COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH(CBPR);
A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH TO RESEARCH THAT
EQUITABLY INVOLVES, FOR
EXAMPLE, COMMUNITY MEMBERS, ORGANIZATIONAL
REPRESENTATIVES, AND RESEARCHERS IN ALL ASPECTS
OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND IN WHICH ALL
PARTNERS CONTRIBUTE EXPERTISE AND SHARE
DECISION MAKING AND OWNERSHIP.

COMMUNITY ORGANIZING; A TERM USED TO DESCRIBE

AN APPROACH THAT GENERALLY ASSUMES THAT
SOCIAL CHANGE NECESSARILY INVOLVES CONFLICT
AND SOCIAL STRUGGLE IN ORDER TO GENERATE
COLLECTIVE POWER FOR THE POWERLESS.
PARTICIPATORY PLANNING INCLUDING COMMUNITY-BASED
PLANNING (CBP); INVOLVING THE ENTIRE COMMUNITY IN THE
STRATEGIC AND MANAGEMENT PROCESSES OF URBAN PLANNING;
OR, COMMUNITY-LEVEL PLANNING PROCESSES, URBAN OR RURAL.

TOWN-MAKING; OR MACHIZUKURI (まちづくり) REFERS TO A JAPANESE

CONCEPT WHICH IS "AN UMBRELLA TERM GENERALLY UNDERSTOOD
AS CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF A
LIVING ENVIRONMENT“.
IT CAN INCLUDE REDEVELOPMENT, REVITALIZATION, AND POST-
DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION, AND USUALLY EMPHASIZES THE
IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL CITIZEN PARTICIPATION.
LANGUAGE-BASED DEVELOPMENT;
OR LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION FOCUSES
ON THE USE OF A LANGUAGE SO THAT IT
SERVES THE NEEDS OF A COMMUNITY. THIS
MAY INVOLVE THE CREATION OF BOOKS,
FILMS AND OTHER MEDIA IN THE
LANGUAGE. THESE ACTIONS HELP A SMALL
LANGUAGE COMMUNITY TO PRESERVE
THEIR LANGUAGE AND CULTURE.
METHODOLOGIES ADDRESSING THE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF
THE DIGITAL DIVIDE, MAKING AFFORDABLE TRAINING AND
ACCESS TO COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET, ADDRESSING THE
MARGINALISATION OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES THAT CANNOT
CONNECT AND PARTICIPATE IN THE GLOBAL ONLINE
COMMUNITY.
HISTORY
AMONGST THE EARLIEST COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
APPROACHES WERE THOSE DEVELOPED IN KENYA AND BRITISH
EAST AFRICA DURING THE 1930S. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
PRACTITIONERS HAVE OVER MANY YEARS DEVELOPED A RANGE
OF APPROACHES FOR WORKING WITHIN LOCAL COMMUNITIES
AND IN PARTICULAR WITH DISADVANTAGED PEOPLE.

THUS THE INFLUENCE OF SUCH EDUCATORS AS PAULO FREIREAND

HIS FOCUS UPON THIS WORK. OTHER KEY PEOPLE WHO HAVE
INFLUENCED THIS FIELD ARE SAUL ALINSKY (RULES FOR RADICALS)
AND E.F. SCHUMACHER (SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL).
IN THE GLOBAL NORTH

IN THE 19TH CENTURY, THE WORK OF THE WELSH

EARLY SOCIALIST THINKER ROBERT OWEN (1771–1851),
SOUGHT TO CREATE A MORE PERFECT COMMUNITY.
AT NEW LANARK AND AT LATER COMMUNITIES SUCH
AS ONEIDA IN THE USA AND THE NEW AUSTRALIA
MOVEMENT IN AUSTRALIA, GROUPS OF PEOPLE CAME
TOGETHER TO CREATE UTOPIAN OR INTENTIONAL
COMMUNITIES, WITH MIXED SUCCESS.
UNITED STATES

IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE 1960S, THE TERM "COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT" BEGAN TO COMPLEMENT AND GENERALLY REPLACE
THE IDEA OF URBAN RENEWAL, WHICH TYPICALLY FOCUSED ON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS OFTEN AT THE EXPENSE
OF WORKING-CLASS COMMUNITIES. ONE OF THE EARLIEST
PROPONENTS OF THE TERM IN THE UNITED STATES WAS SOCIAL
SCIENTIST WILLIAM W. BIDDLE IN THE LATE 1960S, PHILANTHROPIES SUCH
AS THE FORD FOUNDATIONAND GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS SUCH AS
SENATOR ROBERT F. KENNEDY TOOK AN INTEREST IN LOCAL
NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
EVENTUALLY SUCH GROUPS BECAME KNOWN AS "COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT CORPORATIONS" OR CDCS. FEDERAL LAWS
BEGINNING WITH THE 1974 HOUSING AND COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT ACTPROVIDED A WAY FOR STATE AND
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS TO CHANNEL FUNDS TO CDCS AND
OTHER NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS SUCH AS THE NEIGHBORHOOD

REINVESTMENT CORPORATION(FOUNDED IN 1978 AND NOW
KNOWN AS NEIGHBORWORKS AMERICA), THE LOCAL INITIATIVES
SUPPORT CORPORATION (LISC) (FOUNDED IN 1980), AND
THE ENTERPRISE FOUNDATION (FOUNDED IN 1981) HAVE BUILT
EXTENSIVE NETWORKS OF AFFILIATED.

LOCAL NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS TO WHICH THEY HELP

PROVIDE FINANCING FOR COUNTLESS PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN URBAN AND RURAL
COMMUNITIES.
UNITED KINGDOM

IN THE UK, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT HAS HAD TWO MAIN TRADITIONS. THE FIRST WAS AS
AN APPROACH FOR PREPARING FOR THE INDEPENDENCE OF COUNTRIES FROM THE
FORMER BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE 1950S AND 1960S. DOMESTICALLY IT FIRST CAME INTO PUBLIC
PROMINENCE WITH THE LABOUR GOVERNMENT'S ANTI DEPRIVATION PROGRAMMES OF THE
LATTER SIXTIES AND SEVENTIES. THE MAIN EXAMPLE OF THIS BEING THE CDP (COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME), WHICH PILOTED LOCAL AREA BASED COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT.

THE GULBENKIAN FOUNDATION WAS A KEY FUNDER OF COMMISSIONS AND REPORTS

WHICH INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK FROM
THE LATTER SIXTIES TO THE 80'S. THIS INCLUDED RECOMMENDING THAT THERE BE A NATIONAL
INSTITUTE OR CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, ABLE TO SUPPORT PRACTICE AND
TO ADVISE GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES ON POLICY. THIS WAS FORMALLY SET UP
IN 1991 AS THE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION.
IN 1999 A UK WIDE ORGANISATION RESPONSIBLE FOR SETTING PROFESSIONAL
TRAINING STANDARDS FOR ALL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT PRACTITIONERS
WORKING WITHIN LOCAL COMMUNITIES WAS ESTABLISHED AND RECOGNISED BY
THE LABOUR GOVERNMENT. THIS ORGANISATION WAS CALLED PAULO – THE
NATIONAL TRAINING ORGANISATION FOR COMMUNITY LEARNING AND
DEVELOPMENT.

(IT WAS NAMED AFTER PAULO FREIRE). IT WAS FORMALLY RECOGNISED BY DAVID
BLUNKETT, THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT. ITS FIRST
CHAIR WAS CHARLIE MCCONNELL, THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OF THE SCOTTISH
COMMUNITY EDUCATION COUNCIL, WHO HAD PLAYED A LEAD ROLE IN BRINGING
TOGETHER A RANGE OF OCCUPATIONAL INTERESTS UNDER A SINGLE NATIONAL
TRAINING STANDARDS BODY, INCLUDING COMMUNITY EDUCATION, COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION.
THE UK CURRENTLY HOSTS THE ONLY GLOBAL NETWORK OF PRACTITIONERS
AND ACTIVISTS WORKING TOWARDS SOCIAL JUSTICE THROUGH
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT APPROACH, THE INTERNATIONAL
ASSOCIATION FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (IACD).[22] IACD WAS
FORMED IN THE USA IN 1953, MOVED TO BELGIUM IN 1978 AND WAS
RESTRUCTURED AND RELAUNCHED IN SCOTLAND IN 1999.
CANADA

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA HAS ROOTS IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF CO-OPERATIVES, CREDIT UNIONS AND CAISSES
POPULAIRES. THE ANTIGONISH MOVEMENT WHICH STARTED IN THE
1920S IN NOVA SCOTIA, THROUGH THE WORK OF DOCTOR MOSES
COADY AND FATHER JAMES TOMPKINS, HAS BEEN PARTICULARLY
INFLUENTIAL IN THE SUBSEQUENT EXPANSION OF COMMUNITY
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT WORK ACROSS CANADA.
AUSTRALIA

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA HAVE OFTEN BEEN

FOCUSSED UPON ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN COMMUNITIES, AND
DURING THE PERIOD OF THE 1980S TO THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY WERE
FUNDED THROUGH THE COMMUNITY EMPLOYMENT DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM, WHERE ABORIGINAL PEOPLE COULD BE EMPLOYED IN "A
WORK FOR THE DOLE" SCHEME, WHICH GAVE THE CHANCE FOR NON-
GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS TO APPLY FOR A FULL OR PART-TIME
WORKER FUNDED BY THE DEPARTMENT FOR SOCIAL SECURITY. DR JIM
IFE, FORMERLY OF CURTIN UNIVERSITY, ORGANISED A GROUND
BREAKING TEXT-BOOK ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT.
IN THE "GLOBAL SOUTH"

COMMUNITY PLANNING TECHNIQUES DRAWING ON THE HISTORY OF

UTOPIAN MOVEMENTS BECAME IMPORTANT IN THE 1920S AND 1930S IN EAST
AFRICA, WHERE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS WERE SEEN AS A
WAY OF HELPING LOCAL PEOPLE IMPROVE THEIR OWN LIVES WITH INDIRECT
ASSISTANCE FROM COLONIAL AUTHORITIES.

MOHANDAS K. GANDHI ADOPTED AFRICAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

IDEALS AS A BASIS OF HIS SOUTH AFRICAN ASHRAM, AND THEN INTRODUCED
IT AS A PART OF THE INDIAN SWARAJMOVEMENT, AIMING AT
ESTABLISHING ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE AT VILLAGE LEVEL
THROUGHOUT INDIA.
DURING THE FIFTIES AND SIXTIES, INDIA RAN A MASSIVE COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME WITH FOCUS ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
THROUGH GOVERNMENT SUPPORT. THIS WAS LATER EXPANDED IN SCOPE AND
WAS CALLED INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT SCHEME [IRDP]. A LARGE
NUMBER OF INITIATIVES THAT CAN COME UNDER THE COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT UMBRELLA HAVE COME UP IN RECENT YEARS.

THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA REMAINS TO

DEVELOP THE VILLAGES AND TO HELP THE VILLAGERS HELP THEMSELVES TO
FIGHT AGAINST POVERTY, ILLITERACY, MALNUTRITION, ETC. THE BEAUTY OF
INDIAN MODEL OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT LIES IN THE HOMOGENEITY OF
VILLAGERS AND HIGH LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT BECAME A PART OF THE UJAMAA
VILLAGES ESTABLISHED IN TANZANIABY JULIUS NYERERE, WHERE IT HAD SOME
SUCCESS IN ASSISTING WITH THE DELIVERY OF EDUCATION SERVICES
THROUGHOUT RURAL AREAS, BUT HAS ELSEWHERE MET WITH MIXED SUCCESS. IN
THE 1970S AND 1980S, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT BECAME A PART OF
"INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT", A STRATEGY PROMOTED BY UNITED
NATIONS AGENCIES AND THE WORLD BANK.

CENTRAL TO THESE POLICIES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WERE:

• ADULT LITERACY PROGRAMS, DRAWING ON THE WORK OF BRAZILIAN
EDUCATOR PAULO FREIREAND THE "EACH ONE TEACH ONE" ADULT LITERACY
TEACHING METHOD CONCEIVED BY FRANK LAUBACH.

• YOUTH AND WOMEN'S GROUPS, FOLLOWING THE WORK OF THE SEROWE

BRIGADES OF BOTSWANA, OF PATRICK VAN RENSBURG.

• DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNITY BUSINESS VENTURES AND

PARTICULARLY COOPERATIVES, IN PART DRAWN ON THE EXAMPLES OF JOSÉ
MARÍA ARIZMENDIARRIETA AND THE MONDRAGON COOPERATIVES OF
THE BASQUE REGION OF SPAIN.

• COMPENSATORY EDUCATION FOR THOSE MISSING OUT IN THE FORMAL

EDUCATIONSYSTEM, DRAWING ON THE WORK OF OPEN EDUCATION AS
PIONEERED BY MICHAEL YOUNG.
• DISSEMINATION OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES, BASED UPON THE WORK
OF E. F. SCHUMACHERAS ADVOCATED IN HIS BOOK SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL:
ECONOMICS AS IF PEOPLE REALLY MATTERED.

• VILLAGE NUTRITION PROGRAMS AND PERMACULTURE PROJECTS, BASED

UPON THE WORK OF AUSTRALIANS BILL MOLLISON AND DAVID HOLMGREN.

• VILLAGE WATER SUPPLY PROGRAMS

IN THE 1990S, FOLLOWING CRITIQUES OF THE MIXED SUCCESS OF "TOP
DOWN" GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS, AND DRAWING ON THE WORK
OF ROBERT PUTNAM, IN THE REDISCOVERY OF SOCIAL CAPITAL,
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONALLY BECAME CONCERNED WITH
SOCIAL CAPITAL FORMATION.

YUNUS SAW THAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS LIKE POVERTY AND DISEASE WERE NOT
BEING SOLVED BY THE MARKET SYSTEM ON ITS OWN. THUS, HE ESTABLISHED A
BANKING SYSTEM WHICH LENDS TO THE POOR WITH VERY LITTLE INTEREST,
ALLOWING THEM ACCESS TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP.THIS WORK WAS
HONOURED BY THE 2006 NOBEL PEACE PRIZE.
ANOTHER ALTERNATIVE TO "TOP DOWN" GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS IS
THE PARTICIPATORY GOVERNMENT INSTITUTION. PARTICIPATORY
GOVERNANCE INSTITUTIONS ARE ORGANIZATIONS WHICH AIM TO
FACILITATE THE PARTICIPATION OF CITIZENS WITHIN LARGER DECISION
MAKING AND ACTION IMPLEMENTING PROCESSES IN SOCIETY.

A CASE STUDY DONE ON MUNICIPAL COUNCILS AND SOCIAL

HOUSING PROGRAMS IN BRAZIL FOUND THAT THE PRESENCE OF
PARTICIPATORY GOVERNANCE INSTITUTIONS SUPPORTS THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS BY LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS.
THE "HUMAN SCALE DEVELOPMENT" WORK OF RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
AWARD-WINNING CHILEAN ECONOMIST MANFRED MAX
NEEF PROMOTES THE IDEA OF DEVELOPMENT BASED UPON
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN NEEDS, WHICH ARE CONSIDERED TO BE
LIMITED, UNIVERSAL AND INVARIANT TO ALL HUMAN BEINGS (BEING
A PART OF OUR HUMAN CONDITION).

HE CONSIDERS THAT POVERTY RESULTS FROM THE FAILURE TO

SATISFY A PARTICULAR HUMAN NEED, IT IS NOT JUST AN ABSENCE
OF MONEY. WHILST HUMAN NEEDS ARE LIMITED, MAX NEEF SHOWS
THAT THE WAYS OF SATISFYING HUMAN NEEDS IS POTENTIALLY
UNLIMITED.
SATISFIERS ALSO HAVE DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS: THEY CAN BE VIOLATORS OR
DESTROYERS, PSEUDOSATISFIERS, INHIBITING SATISFIERS, SINGULAR SATISFIERS, OR
SYNERGIC SATISFIERS. MAX-NEEF SHOWS THAT CERTAIN SATISFIERS, PROMOTED AS
SATISFYING A PARTICULAR NEED, IN FACT INHIBIT OR DESTROY THE POSSIBILITY OF
SATISFYING OTHER NEEDS.

FORMAL DEMOCRACY, WHICH IS SUPPOSED TO MEET THE NEED FOR

PARTICIPATION OFTEN DISEMPOWERS AND ALIENATES; COMMERCIAL TELEVISION,
WHILE USED TO SATISFY THE NEED FOR RECREATION, INTERFERES WITH
UNDERSTANDING, CREATIVITY AND IDENTITY.

SYNERGIC SATISFIERS, ON THE OTHER HAND, NOT ONLY SATISFY ONE PARTICULAR
NEED, BUT ALSO LEAD TO SATISFACTION IN OTHER AREAS: SOME EXAMPLES
ARE BREASTFEEDING; SELF-MANAGED PRODUCTION; POPULAR EDUCATION;
DEMOCRATIC COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS; PREVENTATIVE MEDICINE;
MEDITATION; EDUCATIONAL GAMES.
VIETNAM

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS APPLY THE TERM COMMUNITY IN

VIETNAM TO THE LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT, EACH WITH A
TRADITIONAL IDENTITY BASED ON TRADITIONAL, CULTURAL, AND
KINSHIP RELATIONS. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES IN
VIETNAM AIM TO ORGANIZE COMMUNITIES IN WAYS THAT INCREASE
THEIR CAPACITIES TO PARTNER WITH INSTITUTIONS, THE
PARTICIPATION OF LOCAL PEOPLE, TRANSPARENCY AND EQUALITY,
AND UNITY WITHIN LOCAL COMMUNITIES.
THE PLANS CREATED BY SDEP ARE INEFFECTIVE AND SERVE MAINLY FOR
ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES. LOCAL PEOPLE ARE NOT INFORMED OF
THESE DEVELOPMENT PLANS. THE PARTICIPATORY RURAL
APPRAISAL (PRA) APPROACH, A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY THAT
ALLOWS LOCAL PEOPLE TO SHARE AND EVALUATE THEIR OWN LIFE
CONDITIONS, WAS INTRODUCED TO VIETNAM IN THE EARLY 1990S TO
HELP REFORM THE WAY THAT GOVERNMENT APPROACHES LOCAL
COMMUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT.

THE VILLAGE/COMMUNE DEVELOPMENT (VDP/CDP) APPROACH WAS

DEVELOPED AS A MORE FITTING APPROACH THAN PRA TO ANALYZE
LOCAL CONTEXT AND ADDRESS THE NEEDS OF RURAL
COMMUNITIES. VDP/CDP PARTICIPATORY PLANNING IS CENTERED
AROUND HO CHI MINH'S SAYING THAT "PEOPLE KNOW, PEOPLE
DISCUSS AND PEOPLE SUPERVISE."
LOCAL PEOPLE USE THEIR KNOWLEDGE TO SOLVE LOCAL ISSUES.THEY
CREATE MID-TERM AND YEARLY PLANS THAT HELP IMPROVE EXISTING
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS WITH THE SUPPORT OF
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS. ALTHOUGH VDP/CDP HAS BEEN
TESTED IN MANY REGIONS IN VIETNAM, IT HAS NOT BEEN FULLY
IMPLEMENTED FOR A COUPLE REASONS.

THE METHODS APPLIED IN VDP/CDP ARE HUMAN RESOURCE AND

CAPACITY BUILDING INTENSIVE, ESPECIALLY AT THE EARLY STAGES. IT
ALSO REQUIRES THE LOCAL PEOPLE TO HAVE AN "INITIATIVE-TAKING"
ATTITUDE. PEOPLE IN THE REMOTE AREAS WHERE VDP/CDP HAS BEEN
TESTED HAVE MOSTLY PASSIVE ATTITUDES BECAUSE THEY ALREADY
RECEIVE ASSISTANCE FROM OUTSIDERS.