Minerals

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An overview
• Major minerals are found in large quantities in the body
• Trace minerals are found in small quantities.
• They may bind with other substances and interact with other
minerals, thus affecting absorption.
• Major minerals retain their chemical identity when exposed to
heat, air, acid, or mixing.

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Overview of minerals
• Binders in food can combine chemically with minerals and
prevent their absorption.
• Phytates in legumes and grains.
• Oxalates in spinach and rhubarb.
• Nutrient Interactions
• sodium and calcium
• phosphorus and magnesium
• often caused by supplements.
• Varied Roles
• Sodium, potassium and chloride function primarily in fluid
balance.
• Calcium, phosphorus and magnesium function primarily in bone 3
growth and health
Calcium
• Most of calcium (99%) is found in the bones.
• The remaining calcium (1%) is found in the blood and has
many functions.
• Bone and blood calcium are kept in balance with a system of
hormones and vitamin D.
• Blood calcium remains in balance at the expense of bone
calcium and at the risk of developing osteoporosis in later
years.

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Calcium Recommendations
and Sources
• Calcium recommendations
• RDA adults (19-70 yrs): 1100 mg/day
• RDI adults (>70 yrs): 1000 mg/day
• Sources: milk, cheese, broccoli, bok choy

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Roles in the body
• Helps build strong bones and healthy teeth
• Body needs calcium for muscles to move and nerves to carry
messages.
• Calcium helps move blood through blood vessels and release
hormones and enzymes.
• Calcium deficiency:
• bone disease: osteoporosis

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Absorption of calcium
• Absorption rate for adults is 25% of calcium consumed.
• Calcium-binding protein is needed for calcium absorption.
• Factors that enhance absorption
• stomach acid
• vitamin D
• lactose
• growth hormones
• Factors that inhibit absorption
• lack of stomach acid
• vitamin D deficiency
• high phosphorus intake
• high-fibre diet
• phytates in seeds, nuts, and grains 7
• oxalates in beet greens, rhubarb, and spinach
Calcium in other sources
• tofu, corn tortillas, some nuts and seeds
• mustard and turnip greens, broccoli, bok choy, kale, parsley,
watercress, and seaweed (nori)
• legumes
• oysters and small fish consumed with bones
• mineral waters, calcium-fortified orange juice, fruit and
vegetable juices, high-calcium milk
• calcium-fortified cereals and breads.

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Phosphorus
• Most of the phosphorus is found in the bones and teeth.
• Required for mineralisation of bones and teeth
• also important in energy metabolism, energy transfer
• part of every cell
• genetic material (DNA and RNA)

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Phosphorus Recommendations and
Intakes
• Upper intake level for those 19–70 years of age is 4,000
mg/day.
• Sources include all animal foods including meat, fish and
poultry, milk and eggs
• Phosphorus toxicity symptoms include the calcification of non-
skeletal tissues, especially the kidneys.
• RDA: adults 700 mg

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Sources in food

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Deficiency and toxicity
• Osteoporosis is the disease where the bones become porous
and fragile due to mineral losses.
• No obvious symptoms of mineral loss in bones appear. It is
silent.
• Deficiency in children can present as stunted growth.
• Toxicity symptoms include constipation, increased risk of
urinary stone formation, kidney dysfunction, and interference
with the absorption of other minerals

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Sodium
• Sodium is one of the primary electrolytes in the body and is
responsible for maintaining fluid balance.
• maintains normal fluid and electrolyte and acid-base balance
• assists in nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction
• filtered out of the blood by the kidneys.
• Dietary recommendations include a moderate intake of salt
and sodium.
• Excesses may aggravate hypertension.
• Minimum adults: 500 mg/day.
• Adequate Intake: Adults, 460-920 mg/day.
• The upper intake level for adults is 2,300 mg/day.
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Deficiency and Toxicity
• Sodium and water must be replaced after vomiting, diarrhoea
or heavy sweating.
• Symptoms are muscle cramps, mental apathy, and loss of
appetite.
• Salt tablets without water induce dehydration.
• hyponatremia during ultra-endurance athletic activities.
• High sodium diets may aggravate conditions such as oedema
and acute hypertension.
• Prolonged high intake may contribute to hypertension
• Chloride in an essential nutrient that plays a role in fluid
balance.
• It is associated with sodium and part of hydrochloric acid in the 14
stomach.
Sodium and health
• Hypertension
• Salt has a great impact on high blood pressure. Salt restriction
helps to lower blood pressure.
• Bone Loss (Osteoporosis)
• High sodium intake is associated with calcium excretion
• High sodium intake is associated with calcium excretion
• large amounts in processed foods (approximately 75% of
sodium in the diet)
• table salt (approximately 15% added sodium in the diet)
• moderate amounts in meats, milks, breads and vegetables
(approximately 10% of sodium in the diet).
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Potassium
• Potassium is another electrolyte associated with fluid balance.
• maintains normal fluid and electrolyte balance
• supports cell integrity
• assists in nerve impulse transmission and muscle contractions
• maintains heartbeat
• Low potassium intakes increase blood pressure.
• Adequate potassium intakes prevent and correct hypertension.

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Sources Potassium

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Recommended intakes and
sources
Adequate Intake: M: 3,800 mg/day F:
2,800mg/day
Fresh foods are rich sources mostly fruits and
vegetables.
Processed foods have less potassium

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The trace minerals
• Iron
• Zinc
• Iodine
• Selenium
• Copper
• Manganese
• Fluoride
• Trace minerals are needed in very small quantities in the human
body. They perform many essential functions important to
health.
• Toxic levels can easily be reached with the use of supplements.
• Humans can get the amounts of trace minerals needed by 19
consuming a wide variety of foods.
Iron
• Essential nutrient found in the body as a part of haemoglobin
and myoglobin.
• Used for energy metabolism and enzyme activity.
• Special proteins assist with iron absorption, transport, and
storage.
• Both iron deficiency and iron toxicity cause damage so balance
is important.
• Haem iron is better absorbed but non-haem iron absorption
can be enhanced.
• part of the protein haemoglobin which carries oxygen in the
blood
• part of the protein myoglobin in the muscles which makes 20
oxygen available for muscle contractions
Iron Absorption and Metabolism
Haem and non-haem iron
• Haem iron
• found in foods that are from the flesh of animals (meat, poultry,
and fish)
• represents only 10% of a days iron consumption, but has an
absorption rate of 25%.
• Non-haem iron
• found in plant-derived and animal-derived foods
• has an absorption rate of 17%.
• When non-haem iron is consumed with vitamin C at the same
meal, absorption of iron increases.
• Citric acid and lactic acid from foods, HCl from the stomach,
and sugars enhance non-haem iron absorption. 21
Absorption-Inhibiting Factors
• phytates and fibres from legumes, grains, and rice
• vegetable proteins in soybeans, legumes, and nuts
• calcium in milk
• tannic acid and other polyphenols in tea, coffee, grains,
oregano, and red wine
• Reduced gastric acidity.

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Iron deficiency
• Iron deficiency is the most common
nutrient deficiency.
• Iron-deficiency anaemia can affect
individuals in many stages of life.
• Vulnerable stages of life
• women in reproductive years due to menstruation
• pregnant women due to the needs of the infant,
increases in blood volume, and loss of blood
during the birthing process
• infants and young children due to rapid growth
• teenagers due to rapid growth in males and
menstruation in females.
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• Blood losses
• can be from non-obvious sources such as a bleeding ulcer
• malaria and parasites
• giving 500 mL of blood results in a loss of about 2.5 mg iron
• menstruation
Symptoms include fatigue, weakness, headaches, apathy,
pallor and poor resistance to cold temperatures.
• Physical work capacity and mental productivity are reduced.
• Symptoms of a deficiency may be confused with behavioural
issues.

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Iron toxicity
• Iron and heart disease – may be a link to high iron stores.
• Iron and cancer – may be a link with free radical activity
resulting in damage to DNA.
• upper Level of Intake for adults: 45 mg/day
• accidental supplement poisoning in children
• symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, constipation,
rapid heartbeat, weak pulse, dizziness, shock, and confusion

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Iron Recommendations and
Sources
• Recommended Iron Intakes (RDI)
• Men: 8 mg/day
• Women: 18 mg/day for adults 19-50 years of age
• Women: 8 mg/day for adults over 51 years of age
• Vegetarians need 1.8 times as much iron because of low bioavailability.
• Red meats, fish, poultry, and shellfish
• Eggs
• Legumes
• grain products (whole-grain, enriched, and fortified breads and
cereals)
• dark greens and dried fruits.
• Iron-Enriched Foods : often added to grain foods; not absorbed
well. 26
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Maximising iron absorption
• Bioavailability
• high in meats, fish, and poultry.
• intermediate in grains and legumes.
• Bioavailability is low in vegetables.
• Combined effect of enhancing and inhibiting factors
• Iron cookware takes up iron salts (contamination iron)
• Acidic foods and long cooking times increase uptake of iron
salts
• Iron supplements
• Vitamin C enhances food iron absorption, not supplement
absorption.
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Zinc
• Zinc is important in a multitude of chemical reactions in the
body.
• The best sources of dietary zinc are protein-rich foods.
• Zinc from pancreatic secretions is also available for absorption.
• Phytates and fibre can bind zinc, therefore limiting absorption.
• A special binding protein monitors the absorption of zinc.
• Zinc deficiency symptoms include growth retardation and
sexual immaturity.

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Zinc: Roles in the body
• helps to make parts of DNA and RNA
• manufactures haem for haemoglobin
• assists in essential fatty acid metabolism
• releases vitamin A from liver stores
• metabolises carbohydrates
• synthesises proteins
• metabolises alcohol
• disposes of damaging free radicals
• involved in growth, development, and immune function
• affects platelets in blood clotting and wound healing
• needed to produce the retinal form of vitamin A
• affects thyroid hormone function
• influences behaviour and learning performance
• taste perception
• wound healing
• sperm development 30
• foetal development
Zinc absorption
• Rate of absorption depends on zinc status; when more is
needed, more will be absorbed.
• Phytates and fibre bind zinc and reduce absorption.
• Zinc recycling.
• Losses occur in the faeces, urine, shedding of skin, hair, sweat,
menstrual fluids, and semen
• Zinc transport
• transported by the protein albumin
• binds to transferrin
• excessive iron and copper can lead to a zinc deficiency and
excessive zinc can lead to an iron and copper deficiency.
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Zinc Deficiency
• not widespread
• occurs in pregnant women, young children,
the elderly, and the poor
• symptoms
• growth retardation
• delayed sexual maturation
• impaired immune function
• hair loss, eye and skin lesions
• altered taste, loss of appetite, and delayed wound healing.

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Zinc Recommendations and
Sources
• Recommended intakes (RDI)
• Men: 14 mg/day ; Women: 8 mg/day
• shellfish, meats, poultry, milk, and cheese, wholegrain and
legumes.
• Zinc supplementation to reduce incidence of disease and
diarrhoea

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Iodine
• Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormone that
helps to regulate metabolism.
• Iodine deficiency can cause simple goitre and cretinism.
• component of two thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
• regulates body temperature, growth, development, metabolic
rate, nerve and muscle function, reproduction, and blood cell
production.

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Iodine Deficiency
• Simple goitre is the enlargement of the thyroid gland caused
by iodine deficiency. Goitre is enlargement of the thyroid
gland due to malfunction of the gland, iodine deficiency or
overconsumption of goitrogens.
• Goitrogen (anti-thyroid) overconsumption – naturally
occurring in cabbage, spinach, radishes, soybeans, peanuts,
peaches, and strawberries.
• Cretinism is a congenital disease characterised by mental and
physical retardation and commonly caused by maternal iodine
deficiency during pregnancy.

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Iodine Recommendations and
Sources
• Recommendations (RDI) – Adults: 150 μg/day
• Sources
• iodised salt
• seafood
• bread and dairy products (fortified flour)
• plants grown in iodine-rich soils
• animals that feed on plants grown in iodine-rich soils.

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Selenium
• Selenium is an antioxidant nutrient associated with protein
foods.
• It may provide some protection against certain types of cancer.
• Selenium roles in the body
• defends against oxidation
• regulates thyroid hormone.
• Selenium Recommendations and Sources
• Recommendations (RDI)
• Adult men: 70 g/day
• Adult women: 60 g/day
• Sources include seafood, meat, whole grains, and vegetables
(depends on soil content)
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Fluoride
• Fluoride Roles in the Body
• formation of teeth and bones; helps to make teeth resistant to
decay
• fluorapatite is the stabilised form of bone and tooth crystals
• Fluoride and dental caries
• widespread health problem
• leads to nutritional problems due to issues with chewing.
• The use of fluoridated water can reduce dental caries.
• Excess fluoride causes fluorosis – the pitting and discoloration
of teeth

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Fluoride and Toxicity
• Tooth damage called fluorosis is the irreversible pitting and
discoloration of the teeth.
• Upper Limit of Intake for Adults: 10 mg/day.
• Prevention of fluorosis
• Monitor fluoride content of local water supply.
• Supervise toddlers during tooth brushing.
• Watch quantity of toothpaste used (pea size) for toddlers.
• Use fluoride supplements only if prescribed by a doctor
• Fluoride Recommendations (AI) and Sources
• AI Men: 4 mg/day.
• AI Women: 3 mg/day.
• seafood 39