LIGHT AND

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
The Nature of Light
1678 – Christiaan
Huygens proposed the wave
theory which states that light was
made up of waves vibrating up and
down perpendicular to the direction
of travel of light.

1704 – Isaac Newton, proposed

the corpuscular theory which
held that light is composed of tiny
particles, or corpuscles, emitted
by luminous bodies.
The Nature of Light

1803 – Thomas Young performed

experiments on diffraction, the results
of which cannot be explained by the
corpuscular theory.

1864 – James Clerk Maxwell proposed

the electromagnetic wave theory
which states that electric and magnetic
fields were propagated together and
that their speed was identical with the
speed of light.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
1887 – Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric
effect.

Photoelectric Effect - Electrons are emitted from

matter as a result of their absorption of energy from
visible light or ultraviolet radiation.
1900 – Max Planck suggested that
although light is a wave, these waves
could gain or lose energy in finite
packets of energy called “quanta”
(later named photons).

1905 – Albert Einstein explained

photoelectric effect in terms of
quanta (for which he received the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921).

According to Einstein's quantum

theory of light, light can be thought
of as a stream of particles,
called photons.
Reflection of Light: Kinds of Reflection

Specular Reflection –
reflection off smooth
surfaces. Parallel incident
rays remain parallel after
reflection.

Diffused Reflection –
reflection off irregular
surfaces. Parallel incident
rays scatter after reflection.
Reflection of Light: Laws of Reflection

normal (N)

incident ray reflected ray

i r

1st Law: The angle of incidence i is equal to the

angle of reflection r.
Reflection of Light: Laws of Reflection

PLANE 1 N

incident ray reflected ray

i r

PLANE 2

2nd Law of Reflection: The incident ray, the

reflected ray, and the normal all lie on the same plane.
Reflection at a Plane Surface

Object Point and

Point Object
Image Point
Image Formation by Plane Mirror

1. Because the rays do not actually pass through the

image point, the image formed is a virtual image.

2. The image is erect.

3. The image size hi is equal to

the object size ho.

4. The image distance s’ is

equal to the object distance s.
The image is behind the mirror.
Spherical Mirrors: Concave Mirror
A concave mirror converges light rays after
reflection. Hence, it is also called a converging mirror.

vertex (V) – the center of

the surface of the mirror.
center of curvature (C)
– the center of the sphere
from where the mirror is V
cut.
radius of curvature (R)
– the radius of the sphere
from where the mirror is
cut.
principal axis – line
passing through C and V.
Spherical Mirrors: Concave Mirror

focal point or focus (F) –

the point where light rays
parallel to the principal axis
converge (or appear to
converge) after reflection.
V

focal length (f) – the

distance from the focal
point to the vertex.

f=½R
Spherical Mirrors: Convex Mirror
A convex mirror diverges light rays after
reflection. Hence, it is also called a diverging mirror.
Principal Rays: Concave Mirror
Principal Rays: Convex Mirror
Image Formation by Concave Mirror
CASE 1. The object is at infinity. (s = ∞)

The image is a point

located at the focus.

CASE 2. The object is at a finite distance beyond C.

(s>R)

The image is real,

inverted, diminished, and
located between F and C in front
of the mirror.
Image Formation by Concave Mirror
CASE 3. The object is at C. (s = R)

The image is real,

inverted, has the same size as
object, and located at C in front
of the mirror.

CASE 4. The object is between F and C. (R>s>f)

The image is real, C F

inverted, enlarged, and located
beyond C in front of the mirror.
Image Formation by Concave Mirror
CASE 5. The object is at F. (s = f)

There is no image formed

because the reflected rays are
parallel.

CASE 6. The object is between F and V. (f>s>0)

The image is virtual,

erect, enlarged, and located
behind the mirror (farther
from the mirror than the
object is).
Image Formation by Convex Mirror

There is only one type of image formed by a

convex mirror: virtual, erect, diminished, and located
behind the mirror (nearer the mirror than the object is).
The Mirror Equation
The mirror equation gives the relationship
between object distance, image distance, and focal
length.

The Mirror Equation B M

1 1 1
  A’
f s s' V
A C F f

B’

Magnification s’
s
hi s'
M  
ho s
The Mirror Equation: Sign Rules

1 1 1 hi s'
  M  
f s s' ho s

1. object distance (s) – when the object is in front of

the mirror, s is + (real object). When the object is
behind the mirror, s is - (virtual object).
2. image distance (s’) – when the image is in front of
the mirror, s’ is + (real image). When the image is
behind the mirror, s’ is - (virtual image).
3. focal length (f) – converging mirror: +f and
diverging mirror: –f
4. magnification (M) – inverted image: –M
erect image: +M
 a y

h  h’


a a

s s’

s  s' a y h
 y
h  h' 2a h 2
 1
(a) 
1

1 s'  48cm
s'  48cm M    4
s' 16cm 12cm s 12cm
(b) s'  48cm The image is located 48 cm behind the mirror.

C F object image
 s'
M 
s
4m  s
 2.25  
s
s  3.20 m s '  7.20 m

1 2 1 1
  
f R 3.20m 7.20m

R  4.43 m
Image 1 Image 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s1 '  24cm 10cm s2 '  24cm 30cm
s1 '  7.06cm s2 '  13.3cm
 7.06cm  13.3cm
hi1   (0.250cm) hi 2   (0.250cm)
10cm 10cm
hi1  0.177cm hi 2  0.111cm
Mirror Combination 1. An object is placed 45 cm in
front and to the right of a converging mirror of focal length
30.0 cm. An identical converging mirror is placed 100 cm
to the right of the first. What are the nature, orientation,
location, and magnification of the final image formed by
the second mirror. Consider the light rays striking mirror 1
first. 100 cm
1 1 1
Mirror 1:  
s1 ' 30 45
45 cm
s1 '  90cm
Mirror 1 Mirror 2

Mirror 2: s2  100cm  90cm  10cm

90  15
1 1 1 M1    2 M2    1.5
  45 10
s2 ' 30 10
M  M 1M 2  (2)(1.5)  3
s2 '  15cm
virtual, inverted, 3x the size of object, and
located 15cm to the right of mirror 2.
Mirror Combination 2. An object is placed 45 cm in
front and to the right of a converging mirror of focal length
30.0 cm. An identical converging mirror is placed 80 cm
to the right of the first. What are the nature, orientation,
location, and magnification of the final image formed by
the second mirror. Consider the light rays striking mirror 1
first.
1 1 1 80 cm
Mirror 1:  
s1 ' 30 45
s1 '  90cm 45 cm

Mirror 1 Mirror 2
Mirror 2: s2  80cm  90cm  10cm
90 7.5
1 1 1 M1    2 M2    0.75
  45  10
s2 ' 30  10
M  M 1M 2  (2)(0.75)  1.5
s2 '  7.5cm
real, inverted, 1.5x the size of object, and
located 7.5 cm to the left of mirror 2.
Mirror Combination 3. A concave mirror of focal length 15.0
cm is at x = 0. An object is placed at x = 20.0 cm. A
convex mirror of focal length 15.0 cm is at x = 90.0 cm.
(see figure). Consider that light rays from the object strike the
concave mirror first. Determine the location and magnification
of the final image (formed by the convex mirror).
concave convex
mirror mirror
object

20 cm 70 cm
F1 F2
s2  90cm  60cm  30cm
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s1 ' 15cm 20cm s2 '  15cm 30cm
M  M1M 2
s1 '  60cm s2 '  10cm
60cm  10cm 1  1
M1    3 M2    M  (3)    1
20cm 30cm 3  3
Mirror Combination 4. A concave mirror of focal length 15.0
cm is at x = 0. An object is placed at x = 20.0 cm. A
convex mirror of focal length 15.0 cm is at x = 50.0 cm. (see
figure). Consider that light rays from the object strike the
concave mirror first. Determine the location and magnification
of the final image (formed by the convex mirror).
concave convex 60cm
mirror mirror M1    3
object 20cm

20 cm 30 cm 30cm
F1 F2 M2    3
 10cm

1

1

1 1

1

1 M  M1M 2
s1 ' 15cm 20cm s2 '  15cm  10cm
s1 '  60cm M  (3)( 3)  9
s2 '  30cm
s2  50cm  60cm  10cm
PROBLEM. You are inside a car parked along the side of a road
when you happen to glance at the side mirror (convex of radius
200 cm). You noticed that a motorcyclist is approaching. If the
motorcyclist is approaching with a speed of 12 m/s, how fast is
his image moving when he is 30 m away from the mirror?
REFRACTION
Refraction is the change in the
velocity of light as it travels through
different media.

INDEX OF REFRACTION (n)

Index of refraction is the ratio of the
speed of light in air/vacuum to the
speed of light in a transparent medium.

c
n
v
where: c = 3.00 x 108 m/s

since c > v, then n > 1

The index of refraction of any transparent material is greater

than 1.00.
INDICES OF REFRACTION
MATERIAL INDEX OF
REFRACTION (n)
Air 1.003
ice 1.31
Water 1.33
Crown glass 1.52
ice
Sodium chloride 1.53
Diamond 2.42

diamond

crown
glass
sodium chloride
LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray,
and the normal all lie on the same
plane.

2. Snell’s Law: The ratio of the sines

of the angle of incidence 1 and angle
of refraction 2 is equal to the inverse
ratio of their indices of refraction.

sin 1 n2
 n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
sin  2 n1
When a light ray enters a denser medium obliquely, it
bends toward the normal.

When a light ray enters a less denser medium

obliquely, it bends away from the normal.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When a light ray enters a less denser medium
obliquely, it bends away from the normal.
When the angle of refraction is 90o, the angle of
incidence is called the critical angle (c).
When the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle, total internal reflection occurs.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

optic fiber prism

snell’s window
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
(2nd medium is air)

n1 sin  c  nair sin 90

1
 c  sin  
1

 n1 
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
(2nd medium not air)

n1 sin  c  n2 sin 90

 n2 
 c  sin  
1

 n1 
SHALLOWING EFFECT OF REFRACTION

h' n2 h
 h' 
h n1 n1

h’
h
OTHER EFFECTS OF REFRACTION: Formation of Rainbow
OTHER EFFECTS OF REFRACTION: Formation of Mirage

A mirage is an optical phenomenon that creates the

illusion of water and results from the refraction of light
through a non-uniform medium.

On a hot day, the air just above the road is hotter and
less dense than the air above. Light coming from a distant
object (truck) bends as it travels to the road surface and is
refracted to the observer’s eyes.
OTHER EFFECTS OF REFRACTION: Dispersion
The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all
wavelengths (colors) but the speed of light in another medium
is different for different wavelengths.
The dependence of wave speed and index of refraction
to wavelength is called dispersion.

Violet (short wavelength) is deviated most and red

(longest wavelength) is deviated least
 1.5
1  tan 1
 51.34o
1.2
(1.00) sin(51.34)  (1.33) sin  2
x
 2  35.95 o
tan 35.95 
4m

x  2.90m x  1.5  4.40m

 (1.66) sin 25  (1.00) sin 2
25o
2  2  44.55o

 

  180  [2(25  45.45)]

25o
  39.1o
EXAMPLE: The index of refraction of the prism below is
1.60. A light ray in air parallel to the base of the prism
enters the prism . Find the angle of refraction with which
the ray will exit the prism.

30O n = 1.60 60O

EXAMPLE: The index of refraction of the prism below is
1.60. A light ray in air parallel to the base of the prism
enters the prism . Find the angle of refraction with which
the ray will exit the prism.

(1.00) sin 30  (1.60) sin  2  2  18.21o  3  90  18.21o  71.79o

90   4  180  (71.79  60)  4  41.79o

90   5  30  (90  41.79)  180

 5  11.79o 1
2
6 3

30O n = 1.60 60O

5 4
(1.60) sin 11.79  (1.00) sin  6  6  19.08o
na = 1.000 (a) (1.00) sin 90  (1.309) sin  i
ni = 1.309
i
 i  49.81o
(1.333) sin  w  (1.309) sin 49.81
 w  48.60o
w
(b) (1.00) sin 90  (1.333) sin  w
nw = 1.333
 w  48.60o
THIN LENSES
A lens is a transparent material with two non-parallel curved surfaces
or one curved and one plane surface.

CONVERGING LENSES DIVERGING LENSES

A converging A diverging lens

lens is thicker at the is thinner at the center
center than at the edges than at the edges and has
and has a positive focal a negative focal length.
length.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT BY CONVEX LENSES

Any ray parallel to the principal axis will be refracted to

the focus on the other side of the lens.
Any ray that passes through the focus will be refracted
parallel to the principal axis.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT BY CONVEX LENSES
REFRACTION OF LIGHT BY CONCAVE LENSES

Light rays parallel to the principal axis will appear to

have diverged from the focus on the same side of the lens.

Light rays that converge at the focus on the other side

of the lens will be refracted parallel to the principal axis.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT BY CONCAVE LENSES
IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX LENSES

CASE 1. The object is at infinity. (s = ∞)

The image is a point

located at the focus.

CASE 2. The object is at a finite distance beyond 2F. (s>2f)

• Real
• Inverted
• Diminished
2F F F 2F
• Located
between F
and 2F
(other side)
CASE 3. The object is at 2F. (s=2f)

• Real
• Inverted
2F F F 2F
• Same size
• Located at 2F
(other side)

CASE 4. The object is between F and 2F. (2f>s>f)

• Real
• Inverted
• Enlarged
• Located
2F F F 2F
beyond 2F
(other side)
CASE 5. The object is at F. (s=f)

There is no
image formed
2F F F 2F (refracted rays are
parallel).

CASE 6. The object is between F and lens. (f>s)

• Virtual
• Erect
2F F
• Enlarged
F 2F
• Located at the
same side as
object
IMAGE FORMED BY A CONCAVE LENS

• Virtual
• Erect
• Diminished
• Located at the
same side as
object
THE THIN LENS EQUATION

F 2F
2F F
f
s s’

1 1 1 hi s'
  M  
f s s' ho s
THE LENSMAKER’S EQUATION

1 1 1 
 (n  1)  
f  R1 R2 
SIGN RULES:

R is positive if it is located on the other side of the lens.

R is negative if it is located on the same side of the lens.

(a) 1 1 1
  f  48cm diverging lens
f 16cm  12cm

(b) s'  12cm

hi   ho   (8.50mm)  6.38mm
s 16cm

(c)
 ( see figure )

1  1 1 
 (1.52  1)   f  17.95cm
f  4cm 7cm 
1 1 1
 
s ' 17.95 24cm O

s' 71.2cm
24 cm F
71.2cm
M   2.97
24.0cm

I
(a) s  s' 6m
s' 6m  s s  0.0741m
 80   80 
s s

(b) The image is real and is therefore inverted.

(c) 1 1 1
  f  0.0732m
f 0.0741m 5.93m

(d) The focal length is positive. The lens is converging.

object?
(a) 1  1 1 
 (1.60  1)   f  35cm
f  12cm 28cm 
1 1 1
  s' 157.5cm to the right of the lens
s ' 35cm 45cm
s' 157.5cm
hi   ho   (5.00mm)  17.5mm
s 45.0cm
object?
(b) The image of the first lens becomes the object for the second lens.
1 1 1
  s2 '  45cm to the right of 2nd lens
s2 ' 35cm 157.5cm
s2 ' 45.0cm
hi 2   ho 2   (17.5mm)  5.00mm
s2 157.5cm
 1 1 1
 
f x 30cm

1 1 1
 
f x  4 22cm

1 1 1 1
   x  16.3cm f  10.6 cm (converging )
x  4 22cm x 30cm
 O1

1 1 1
12  
s1 s1'=s2 f1 s1 s1 '

I1 1 1 1
 
f 2 s2 s2 '
The combination acts as a single lens where the image of the lens
1 becomes the object for the lens 2. (s2=- s1)

1 1 1
 
f s1 s2 '
O1

1 1 1
12  
s1 s1'=s2 f s1 s2 '

I1
1 1 1
 
f 2 s2 s2 '

1 1 1 1 1 1
  but  
f 2  s1 ' s2 '  s1 ' s1 f1

1 1 1 1
    
f 2  s1 f1  s2 ' 1 1 1
1 1 1 1  
   f f1 f 2
f 2 f1 s1 s2 '
The objective lens of a microscope has a focal
length of fO = 5.00 cm and is 40.0 cm from the
eyepiece. When an object is placed 6.00 cm from
the objective lens (46.0 cm from the eyepiece), the
final image formed is inverted and is 15 times as
large as the original object. What is the focal length
fE of the eyepiece?
An object is placed 50.0 cm to the left of a converging
lens of focal length 40.0 cm. If a diverging lens is placed
140 cm to the right of the first lens, the screen must be
placed 180 cm to the right of the diverging lens for a
sharp image to be formed on it. What is the focal length
of the diverging lens?
A 10.0-cm tall object is placed 30.0 cm to the left of a
converging lens of focal length 20.0 cm. A converging
mirror of focal length 20.0 cm is then placed 40.0 cm to the
right of the lens. Determine the location and size of the
image formed by the converging mirror.