Civil Engineering Practice (CE-203)

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Defects in Construction

Common defects in construction are:

1. Defects in Brick Work

2. Dampness in Old Structures
3. Defects in Plaster Work
4. Defects in Concrete Construction
Defects in Construction
1. Defects in Brick Work
Common defects occurring in brick work are:

a. Sulphate attack on mortars

b. Unsound materials
c. Frost action
d. Corrosion of metals (iron and steel)
e. Crystallization of salts (efflorescence)
f. Shrinkage effects (linear changes resulting from variation in
moisture content)
1. Defects in Brick Work
a. Sulphate Attack on Mortars
 Sulphate attack is
characterized by an initial
horizontal cracking of the
mortar joint.
 As it progresses it causes
expansion and destruction of
the mortar leading ultimately
to structural failure.
 It is caused by an excess of
sulphates in the brick or
other sources reacting with
the cement in the mortar.
1. Defects in Brick Work
a. Sulphate Attack on Mortars
 Sulfate attack actually affects mortar
and not brickwork. It is however
rare, but can be expensive to cure.
 Sulfate attack occurs when a
chemical reaction happens between
sulfate in solution and an ingredient
of Portland cement. This causes the
mortar to expand and crumble.
 The chemical reaction happens
when excessive amounts of water are
in contact with the brickwork and
mortar. The sulfates are found in the
naturally occurring soluble salts of
bricks.
 Re-pointing is recommended.
1. Defects in Brick Work
a. Sulphate Attack on Mortars
 It leads to expansion of mortar causing cracking of brickwork,
spalling of brick edges, deterioration of mortar, wide horizontal
and vertical cracks in the plaster and falling of the plastered
surface.
 Its cause is the chemical action between the sulphate salts in
bricks and constituents of Portland cement.
 This is rapid in the presence of water and wherever moisture
penetrates, excessive dampness occurs.
 It may be prevented by preventing moisture penetration.
 Bricks of low sulphate content and the sulphate resisting cement
should be used.
1. Defects in Brick Work
b. Unsound Materials
 Unsound materials cause the
formation of small pits at the
mortar joints.
 General expansion and
cracking of brickwork is
visible.
 Unsoundness in lime is
caused by the presence of un-
slaked particles of lime,
present in the mortar.
 Un-slaked lime particles may
be present in the bricks also.
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action
 Defects due to frost action would cause cracking in brickwork.
 Prevention of water accumulation would prevent this defect.
 Frost attack/damage is a common problem that usually occurs in
older bricks, and those that were under-burnt during the firing
process.
 In newer construction, failure through frost attack tends to be
confined to areas of severe exposure, or where the frost
resistance of the brick was incorrectly specified.
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action
 The ability of brick to resist frost attack is determined by their
pore structure (in particular the percentage of fine pores in the
brick). Frost attack occurs through a combination of excessively
wet brickwork and freezing temperatures.
 When water turns to ice, there is a 9% increase in its volume.
This expansion can produce stress within the brick, which causes
spalling, with the brick face flaking off and/or crumbling. Mortar
is also subject to frost attack. In a deteriorating state both
elements more readily absorb water which in turn increases the
rate of frost damage.
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action
 The destructive effect of frost is due to the increase in volume
that occurs when water at 0ᵒC is converted into ice at this
temperature. When bricks and mortar are saturated and frozen,
expansion within the pore spaces may set up stresses that cannot
be withstood.
 It is not necessarily the coldest or wettest winters that lead to
frost failure, but rather recurring freeze/thaw cycles of saturated
brickwork.
 When failure occurs, brick surfaces may flake or spall, while the
mortar joints may crumble.
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action (Brick Categories)
For clay bricks there are three categories for frost resistance:
i. Frost resistant (Class F2)
ii. Moderately frost resistant (Class F1)
iii. Not frost resistant (Class F0)

Bricks in the bottom category should not be used externally

unless protected adequately from moisture, while Class F1 bricks
should not be used in saturated conditions or where they are
subject to repeated freezing and thawing. The water absorption
of a brick is given as a percentage as follows:
Mass of water absorbed
Water Absorption  100
Mass of oven dried brick
1. Defects in Brick Work
c. Frost Action (Brick Categories)
 Common bricks can absorb
large amounts of water (up to
around 20%) and many types
are susceptible to frost
damage.
 Engineered bricks absorb
only about 16% and have
excellent frost resistance.
 Although there are bricks
which are frost resistant, even
when they have high
moisture levels.
1. Defects in Brick Work
d. Corrosion of Metals
 Brickwork may get cracked due to corrosion of metals lying
adjacent to it.
 Unprotected iron and steel are liable to get corroded in moisture
and they increase in bulk, thereby causing cracks in masonry.
 Protecting the metal surface with cement mortar up to a layer of
1 to 2 cm thick is essential to prevent corrosion.
 Failure of wall ties has become a significant problem in recent
years. The main cause of failures is rusting of metal ties,
although there can be other causes, such as failure to properly
bed the tie in the mortar joint, poor quality mortar reducing the
bond between tie and mortar, or not installing the requisite
number of ties.
1. Defects in Brick Work
d. Corrosion of Metals
 The obvious danger with rusting wall ties is the possible collapse
of the outer leaf of the cavity wall. Other consequences of
rusting wall ties are:

i. The rust will have a significantly greater volume than the

original metal. This expansion of the tie may cause cracking
and distortion of the structure, particularly where strip ties
have been used. The rust-induced expansion in strip ties can
lead to secondary damage, such as a redistribution of loads,
buckling and bulging of wall, and damage to the roof as the
external leaf increases in height.
1. Defects in Brick Work
d. Corrosion of Metals
ii. The less bulky wall ties will not generally produce enough
expansion to induce cracking unless the joint is abnormally
thin or the mortar is very dense.
iii. Cracking will also reduce the weather resistance of the wall,
which in turn accelerates the rusting process.
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
 In moist climate, in damp places, like basements or under leaky
gutters, masonry often gets disfigured by the formation of a
white deposit called efflorescence.
 This deposit originates from the mortar and frequently spreads
over a part or entire face of the wall.
 Absorbed water dissolves the salts of sodium, potassium and
magnesium contained in the mortar and while evaporating,
forms a crystalline deposit on the surface.
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
 Efflorescence is a common sight in new brickwork. It is caused
by soluble salts in solution being brought to the surface as water
in the wall dries out.
 It is usually a harmless, temporary problem, often occurring in
spring following a wet winter. The main concern is the
unpleasant appearance caused by the white staining that it
produces.
 Persistent efflorescence may indicate a design or construction
fault that allows the brickwork to become, and to remain,
saturated.
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
 Efflorescence is caused by a number of soluble salts including
the sulphate or carbonate compounds of calcium, sodium,
potassium and magnesium. The salts may originate in the bricks
or they may be introduced through the mixing water, cement or
sand used for the mortar mix, or even from the ground on which
the bricks were stacked and stored.
 Additional sources may include sea air and unfortunate site
practices such as the use of washing-up liquid as a mortar
plasticizer, as washing-up liquid usually contains sodium
chloride – common salt.
 As the salts are water soluble they are often removed by rainfall,
although they can usually be brushed off using a stiff brush if
their appearance is causing concern.
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
1. Defects in Brick Work
e. Crystallization of Salts (Efflorescence)
Remedy:

 Avoiding porous bricks in contact with limestone.

 Protection of brickwork against contamination of salt-bearing
materials during building operations.
 Bricks thoroughly soaked during construction.
 Correct design of D.P.C.
1. Defects in Brick Work
f. Shrinkage Effects
 Brickwork may crack due to
the shrinkage movements
arising from changes in
moisture content. This defect
is more common with
concrete and lime mortars.

Remedy:
 Good quality bricks should
be used in dry condition.
 All the work should be
protected from rain.
1. Defects in Brick Work
f. Shrinkage Effects
2. Dampness In Old Structures
a. Rising Damp
2. Dampness In Old Structures
a. Rising Damp
What is rising damp?

 Rising damp is the upward movement of moisture through walls

and sometimes floors by capillary action from below the ground.
 It can rise to 900 mm or more in walls, depending on the
masonry type, water-table level and evaporation rate.
 Salt deposits generally form a horizontal tide-mark, below which
there is discoloration. Floors can display moist patches and
staining.
 Rising damp is distinct from other forms of dampness, such as
rain penetration and condensation, which require different
solutions.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
a. Rising Damp
Is rising damp common in old buildings?
 Rising damp is common in old buildings than new ones but rarer
than often supposed.
 Modern buildings keep water out with a system of barriers:
damp-proof courses (DPCs) have been required in walls since
1875 and damp-proof membranes (DPMs) in floors from the
1960’s.
 Most old buildings lack these and therefore damp rises to some
degree. This is usually not a problem where the construction can
‘breathe’, allowing evaporation, and may actually be
advantageous in humidifying overly-dry centrally-heated
buildings. Excessive dampness arises where the moisture
equilibrium is disturbed, as with misguided attempts to seal
surfaces.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
a. Rising Damp
2. Dampness In Old Structures
a. Rising Damp (Concrete Wall)
2. Dampness In Old Structures
b. Condensation Damp
2. Dampness In Old Structures
b. Condensation Damp
 Condensation is by far the most common form of damp on walls.
 Generally, condensation damp on walls is most evident when the
condensation festers and begins to develop black mould.
 You will generally notice this on outside walls where the wall is
colder however, it can be quite random and will certainly appear
more often within the winter months.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
b. Condensation Damp
 It is not always the case whereby the cause of damp originates
from the outside. One of the most common causes of damp
within homes is due to condensation. Condensation occurs
when large quantities of water vapour from general everyday
living becomes trapped within a property. When the warm moist
damp air comes into contact with cooler air, or a surface which is
at a lower temperature, the result is condensation, this can prove
ideal for the germination of the commonly associated black
mould.
 The key to solving condensation however is ventilation. By
simply improving the air ventilation within a property, you will
generally have an impact on the amount of condensation and
mould issues that you are having within a property.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
Rising Damp - Condensation Damp

a. A wall affected by rising damp b. Mould growth caused

by condensation in dead
air pocket behind books
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
 Penetrating damp (or moisture ingress as it is often known by) is
a damp issue that can affect all main walls at all levels of a
property.
 It can quickly saturate a wall and penetrate through to the inner
walls. You can generally tell if you have a penetrating damp issue
on your walls by examining the outside of the property to look
for defective water management systems such as broken
guttering or pipes.
 Defective pointing and plumbing can also be a common reason
for penetrating damp appearing on walls. Internally, evidence of
penetrating damp on walls can include damp patches the never
seem to dry out, damaged plaster, water marks on masonry and
damp musty smells.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
 Penetrating Damp is also known as “rain penetration” and can
occur through walls, roofs, window or door surrounds.
 Defects in roof tiles, cracked pointing, blocked weep holes or
defective seals allow water to penetrate and enter the property.
 It is usually caused by water moving through walls from the
outside of the building.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
 Penetrating Damp often shows up as damp patches on walls,
cellings and floors which may darken when it rains, or whatever
the cause of the damp is increased.
 You’re more likely to get penetrating damp if you live in an older
building with solid walls as opposed to newer builds with cavity
walls which offer some protection.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
Symptoms of Penetrating Damp
 The most common visual symptom of rain penetration is damp
patches on internal walls – often causing paint to flake or
wallpaper to peel. However, damp masonry caused by
penetrating damp can also result in a wide range of other
symptoms including:
 Reduced thermal resistance of damp masonry – causing heat loss
and condensation.
 Moss and mould growth.
 Frost damage.
 Rotting of embedded timbers.
 Disfiguring carbonate deposits.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
2. Dampness In Old Structures
c. Penetrating Damp On Walls
Traditional Measures for Preventing Penetrating Damp

 A wide range of traditional

measures are available to deal
with the problem of rain
penetration through walls.
These include:
 Cladding
 External renders
 Weatherproof paints and
coatings
 Tile or slate hanging
 Timber boarding
Traditional Measures for Preventing Penetrating Damp

 Whilst all these solutions can be effective, they all have the
disadvantage of changing the visual appearance of the building
to which they are applied. For this reason, an alternative
approach is required in situations where the original appearance
of brick or stone masonry needs to be maintained.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
Remedial Measures / Prevention
 Before applying any remedial measure there should be free
escape for any water that has already entered in the wall.
 Cement paints, bitumen paints, tar paints, emulsions, and oils
can be used to prevent dampness.
 Internal treatment consist of removing the old plaster, applying a
slurry coat of neat cement with a water proofing compound and
then cement with a dense mortar, of 1 : 2 with water proofer
added.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
Remedial Measures / Prevention
The following methods are also used for preventing dampness in
walls:
 Two parts by weight of coal tar and one part by weight of pitch
are put in a vessel, heated and stirred, until the mixture is
sufficiently liquid. It is then applied on walls, and is found to
keep out dampness very well.
 Spray or paint the walls with a solution of sodium silicate,
followed by a solution of calcium chloride, which forms an
insoluble silicate.
 If dampness is confined to one position near ground floor level
above the D.P.C., it may be due to a hole or crack in D.P.C.
through which moisture can pass into the wall alone.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
Remedial Measures / Prevention
 Dampness below ground level may be due to lack of sub-soil
drainage, absence of vertical D.P.C. or leaking drains.
 In the case of floors, remove the top concrete and sand filling for
a depth of 12” under the floor and refill it with hard core or some
dry material.
 Water-proofing cement may also prove beneficial.
2. Dampness In Old Structures
Remedial Measures / Prevention
3. Defects In Plaster Work
a. Cracking
3. Defects In Plaster Work
a. Cracking
Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in the plaster
work resulting from the following reasons:
 Imperfect preparation of background.
 Structural defects in building.
 Discontinuity of surface.
 Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or
rapid drying.
 Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion
or shrinkage.
 Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat.
 Faulty workmanship.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
b. Efflorescence
 It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the
surface due to presence of salts in plaster making materials, as
well as, building materials (bricks, sand, cement and even
water). This gives an unpleasant appearance. It affects the
adhesion of paint with wall surface. Efflorescence can be
removed to some extent by dry bushing and washing the surface
repeatedly.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
c. Popping
 It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to
presence of some particles which expand on setting.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
d. Blistering
 This is the formation of small patches of plaster swelling out
beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late slaking of lime
particles in the plaster.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
e. Flaking
 It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface, due to
poor bond between successive coats.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
f. Peeling
 It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, resulting in the formation of a patch. This also results
from imperfect bond.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
g. Rust stains
 These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on metal
laths.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
h. Uneven surface
 This is obtained purely due to poor workman ship.
3. Defects In Plaster Work

Cracks in plaster work are chiefly due to:

i. Structural defects in buildings and discontinuity of surface.

ii. Plastering on very wet background.
iii. Old surfaces not being properly prepared.
iv. Over-rapid drying.
v. Pitting and blowing are due to partly slaking and hydration of
the lime particles in plaster.
3. Defects In Plaster Work

Falling out of plaster is chiefly due to:

i. Lack of adhesion for not having formed a proper “key” in the

back ground.
ii. Excessive moisture in background.
iii. Excessive thermal changes either in background or in plaster.
iv. Rapid drying.
v. Insufficient drying between each coat of plaster.
3. Defects In Plaster Work
Repairing Cracks in Plaster Work

 Hair like cracks in plaster will generally disappear with white

washing.
 Wider cracks can be filled in by mortar of 1: 2: 7 by weight of
plaster of Paris, cement and sand.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction

There are three basic defects in a concrete structure:

 Cracking
 Spalling
 Disintegration
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
a. Settlement of foundation or soil
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
a. Settlement of foundation or soil
 If there are local soft particles in the soil on which the concrete is
placed, or if there are any air pockets, there will be a local
settlement of the concrete due to weight of the plastic mass. If
this settlement occurs after finishing of the concrete surface,
cracks will appear.

 Remedy
 The occurrence may be prevented by giving proper attention to
compacting and draining the soil below.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
a. Settlement of foundation or soil
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
b. Movement of formwork or disturbance of concrete
 Any movement of the formwork, which occurs between the
times that the concrete begins to lose its fluidity and the time
that it has fully set, will cause cracks to appear in the structure.

 Remedy
 Formwork should be properly designed particularly with respect to
the details and deflection considerations.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
c. Internal settlement of concrete
 Fluid concrete before attaining initial set, is subjected to
settlement of the heavier particles through the fluid matrix.
Since the surface concrete hardens first, if such settlement is not
prevented, local cracking will occur.
 Still worse condition may be where the reinforcement consists of
a heavy material of closely spaced bars.
 Instead of surface cracks, a plane of general separation may be
formed.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
c. Internal settlement of concrete
 Remedy
 Surface cracks can be closed by delayed finishing of concrete
surface.
 Commencing the curing operation as soon as possible, after
placement of concrete, is also beneficial. It reduces the amount of
differential settlement between the surface and interior volume of
the suspension.
 Proper vibratory compaction is a must.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
d. Setting shrinkage
 Volume changes during the initial setting of concrete tend to
cause the formation of shallow surface cracks.
 Setting shrinkage is normally considered after 24 hours.

 Remedy
 Providing the movement of joints (such as expansion joints) will
reduce the effect of cracking due to shrinkage.
 Provide an adequate quantity of distribution reinforcement.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
e. Corrosion of reinforcement
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
e. Corrosion of reinforcement
 The reinforcement is normally placed within a few inches of the
surface. If the reinforcement is exposed to air and water, it will
corrode.
 The volume of the oxide produced by corrosion is about 8 times
that of the parent metal, and the result is that the concrete cover
is cracked and spalled.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
e. Corrosion of reinforcement
 Remedy
 Prevention of corrosion of the reinforcement requires that the steel
be kept away from contact with water in the presence of oxygen.
 This can best be accomplished by encasing the bars in a dense
concrete mass and providing adequate cover.
 Avoid complicated details in the design, which would promote
ponding of water.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
e. Corrosion of reinforcement
 Remedy
 Sea water is a common source, and using it as mixing water for
concrete is to be discouraged, because the salts are completely
digested during hydration of cement.
 Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides, used to accelerate the setting of
concrete, will also promote corrosion, if present in excess amount.
If used, their quantity must not exceed 2%.
 Good concrete has 2% absorption of water, however, it is
permissible up to 10%. But exceeding this limit will increase the
corrosion effect.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
e. Corrosion of reinforcement
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
f. Chemical deterioration of concrete
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
f. Chemical deterioration of concrete
 Concrete is chemically stable, but deteriorates if subjected to
aggressive chemical agents, such as sulphate and acids.
 It causes expansion, cracking and disruption of the concrete
mass.
4. Defects In Concrete Construction
f. Chemical deterioration of concrete
 Remedy
 High alumina cement is a remedy for sulphate attack.
 In acid environments, the use of limestone aggregate will somewhat
prevent the attack.
 A more positive answer however is, to form a protective coating.
Bituminous coatings work nicely for exposure to sulphate or weak
acid solutions.
 A facing of ceramic tile set in acid-proof mortar is an excellent
precaution.
 Even a little thing, like frequent cleaning for the concrete surface
with water is a big help.