Soil-Water Relation and

Irrigation Methods
What is Soil?
Soils are formed from rock, loose unconsolidated materials (may
be transported), or organic residues.

The word ‘soil’ means different things to different people but

basically it may be defined as the solid material on the earth’s
surface that results from the interaction of weathering and
biological activity on the soil parent material or underlying hard
rock.
Weathering
This refers to the breakdown and decomposition of rocks, soils and
minerals into smaller pieces through contact with the atmosphere,
biota and waters.

Weathering include comprise of mechanical and chemical

weathering
 Weathering

I. Mechanical Weathering:
It is the physical disintegration of the original rock mass into
smaller particles without any change in the chemical
composition.
Mechanical Weathering Processes:

1. Unloading or pressure release (e.g. uplift, erosion)

2. Thermal expansion and contraction (thermal stresses)
3. Frost action
4. Biological and Organic effects (e.g. the growth of plant
roots)

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 Weathering
Mechanical Weathering Processes:

1. Unloading or Pressure Release

This involves the removal of the materials overlaying rocks (by

erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to
expand and fracture parallel to the surface.

e.g. Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are formed deep beneath
the Earth's surface. They are under tremendous pressure because of
the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the overlying rock
material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them
is released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The
expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock
surface to form.
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 Weathering
Mechanical Weathering Processes:

2.Thermal stress (Thermal expansion and contraction)

• Expansion or contraction of rock, caused by temperature

changes result in the development of thermal stresses in rocks.

• Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in

deserts, where there is a large diurnal temperature range, hot in
the day and cold at night.

• The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer

layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel off in
thin sheets

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 Weathering
Mechanical Weathering Processes:

3. Frost action
• Freeze induced weathering action occurs mainly in environments where there is a
lot of moisture, and temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing
point.

• When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of
the joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws, water
can flow further into the rock. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which,
over time, break up along the joints into angular pieces.

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 Weathering
Mechanical Weathering Processes:

4. Biological and Organic Effects

• Growth of plant roots in a crevice of rocks exert physical pressure as
well as providing a pathway for water and chemical infiltration.

• Living organisms may contribute to the mechanical weathering of rocks.

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II. Chemical Weathering

1. It involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or

biologically produced chemicals (also known as biological
weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals

2. Chemical weathering results in the alteration of the

chemical composition of rock minerals

3. Chemical weathering occurs in all environment, but is

dominant in hot and humid lands where:
• Temperatures are high
• Large amounts of water are available
• Vegetations flourishes

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Chemical Weathering Processes:

1. Carbonation
• Carbonation occurs on rocks which contain calcium carbonate,
such as limestone and chalk.

• It is the process by which dissolved carbon dioxide in rainwater or

moisture in surrounding air forms carbonic acid and reacts with
calcium carbonate in the rock (limestone) and forms calcium
bicarbonate which is soluble

CO2 + H2O => H2CO3

carbon dioxide + water => carbonic acid

H2CO3 + CaCO3 => Ca(HCO3)2

carbonic acid + calcium carbonate => calcium bicarbonate (soluble)

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Chemical Weathering Processes:

2. Oxidation

• The process by which oxygen combine with water and minerals in

the rock.

• Oxygen dissolved in water combines with atoms of metallic

elements abundant in silicate minerals.

• The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and

combination with oxygen to form iron oxide. This gives the
affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which
crumbles easily and weakens the rock.

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3. Hydration
It is the process which involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH-
ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.

Example:

Iron Oxide + water  Iron Hydroxide

Hematite  limonite

In some cases, when rock minerals absorbs water, it expands

creating stress which causes the disintegration of rocks

Example:
Unhydrated Calcium sulphate + Water  Hydrated Calcium Sulphate (expands)
Anhydrite  Gypsum

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 Parent Rock

Residual soils Transported soils

~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water, ice, gravity.

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A. RESIDUAL SOILS
These are soils which were formed in its present location
through weathering of rocks.

Residual Soil Profile

A soil profile or weathering profile is a
natural succession of zones or strata below
the ground surface. It can be seen if a vertical
cut is made in a residual soil, the vertical
section is called soils profile.

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Soil Profile  O: Organic layer: organic (black)

 A: layer of maximum leaching:

Mineral (dark) – high in organic
content

 B: Layer of maximum deposition:

Accumulation
 White (lime)
 Red (iron, clay)

 C: Weathered parental material:

Little-altered

 R: Parent material: Unweathered

B. Transported Soils
These are soils which were formed from rock
weathering at one site and are now found at another
site. The transporting agent may be:

1.Water (Principal transporting agent)

2.Glaciers
3.Wind
4.Gravity

Transported soils are very important in

engineering because nearly all major cities
are located, at least in part, on flood plains,
deltas, and coastal plains.
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The transported soils may be classified into several
groups, depending on their mode of transportation and
deposition:

1. Glacial soils — formed by transportation and

deposition of glaciers

2. Alluvial soils —transported by running water and

deposited along streams

3. Lacustrine soils —formed by deposition in quiet lakes

4. Marine soils —formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils —transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils —formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during landslides

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Soil Texture
and
Structure
USDA Textural Classes (12)
Sand Sandy Clay Loam
Loamy Sand Silty Clay Loam
Sandy Loam Clay Loam
Loam Sandy Clay
Silt Loam Silty Clay
Silt Clay
Examples
 Sand + Silt + Clay = 100%
40 % Sand
40 % Silt
20 % Clay
Texture = LOAM
25 % Sand
?? % Silt
45 % Clay
25 % Sand
30 % Silt
45 % Clay
25 % Sand
30 % Silt
45 % Clay
CLAY
65 % Sand
20 % Silt
?? % Clay
65 % Sand
20 % Silt
15 % Clay
65 % Sand
20 % Silt
15 % Clay
SANDY
LOAM
?? % Sand
30 % Silt
30 % Clay
40 % Sand
30 % Silt
30 % Clay
40 % Sand
30 % Silt
30 % Clay
CLAY
LOAM
Soil Structure
Examples
Strong, coarse
columnar
Moderate, very coarse, prismatic
Moderate/strong, thick platy
Moderate, coarse
granular

Moderate to strong,
medium prismatic
parting to moderate
to strong, medium
subangular blocky
Weak, medium subangular blocky
Moderate, coarse
prismatic parting
to weak to
moderate,
medium to coarse
subangular blocky
Soil-Water Relationship
Soil-Water Relationship
Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and
organic matter. Soils with smaller particles (silt and clay) have a
larger surface area than those with larger sand particles, and a large
surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil
with a high percentage of silt and clay particles, which describes fine
soil, has a higher water-holding capacity. The table illustrates water-
holding-capacity differences as influenced by texture. Organic matter
percentage also influences water-holding capacity. As the percentage
increases, the water-holding capacity increases because of the
affinity organic matter has for water.
Water-holding capacity