SEMICONDUCTORS & DIODE

Dr. Arpit Jain
Asst. Professor (SG)
EEE Dept.
UPES.
REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS:

1. Electronics Devces and Corcuits By Boylestad & Nashelsky 10th

ED : PEARSON
2. Basic Electronics By Santiram Kal, 2013: PHI
3. Electronic devices by Thomas L Floyd 9th edition.
INTRODUCTION
 The branch of physics that deals with conduction (motion of
charge carriers (electrons)) in semiconductors or vacuum or
gas is known as “electronics”.
 This deals with electronic devices and their utilization

 Electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated

circuits are made of a semi-conductive material.
 Electronic devices or components are connected together to
create an electronic circuit with a particular function.
              E.g.: an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator.
Electronic equipments  
 Electronic systems:

Radio Television Smart phones

Desktop laptop
Security access systems:
Printer system Automated assembly line system

Oil and gas industries

aircraft
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 According to the modern atomic
theory,
 All materials or elements are
composed of atoms.
 All atoms consists nucleus and
electrons revolving around the
nucleus in different orbits.
 The nucleus consists of positively
charged particles called protons
and uncharged particles called
neutrons.
 Electrons are positively charged
particles
 Each orbit from the nucleus
corresponds to a certain energy
level; these orbits are grouped
into energy levels known as
shells.
 The Maximum Number of
Electrons in Each Shell The
maximum number of electrons
(Ne) that can exist in each shell
of an atom is a fact of nature and
can be calculated by the formula,
N e  2n 2
Where n is the number of the shell.
 The energy of an electron increases
as its distance from nucleus
increases. Thus, an electron in the
second orbit possesses more energy
than the electron in the first orbit and
so on.
 It is clear that the electrons in orbits
(outer most orbits) farther from the
nucleus have higher energy and are
less tightly bound to the atom than
those closer to the nucleus.
 This outermost shell is known as the
valence shell and electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons.
 These valence electrons contribute to
chemical reactions and bonding
within the structure of a material and
determine its electrical properties.
ENERGY BANDS
 When atoms combine to form a solid, crystal, they arrange
themselves in a symmetrical pattern, the energy levels no
longer remains “discrete”.
 They become energy “bands”. Each band really consists of
a very large number of discrete energy levels which are
very closely spaced. So these bands may be thought of as
continuous.
 Energy band: The large number of discrete and very
closely spaced energy levels is known as energy band.
 In a solid crystal, energy band that originated from the
shells occupied by valence electrons in an atom is known
as valence band.
 When an electron acquires
enough additional energy, it can
leave the valence band, become a
free electron, and exist in what is
known as the conduction band.
 The difference in energy between
the valence band and the
conduction band is called an
energy gap or band gap (i.e. no
electron can have any energy
value within forbidden bands).
 This is the amount of energy
that a valence electron must have
in order to jump from the
valence band to the conduction
band.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON
THEIR ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:
 Materials can be classified into three groups: conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators.
 Insulators:
 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions. Most good insulators have
very high resistivity.
 For insulators, the energy gap Eg >>> kT ( ~ 4 - 8 eV),
 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore,
there are very few free electrons in an insulator. Thus,
insulators or dielectrics are extremely poor conductors of
electricity.
 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and
quartz.
 Conductors:
 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
Most metals are good conductors.
 For metals or conductors, the CB and the VB overlap each other (
Eg=0). So the large no. of valence band electrons (1022 per cm3)
are available for conduction.
 Examples: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al),
 Semiconductors:
 A semiconductor is a material that the conductivity (ability to conduct
electrical current) is between conductors and insulators.
 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator.
 For semiconductors Eg lies in the range 0.1 – 3.0 eV. Thus, appreciable
numbers of electron-hole pairs are created by thermal process.
 Increasing temperature causes creation of more electron-hole pairs,
hence resistivity falls.
 Examples: Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic
(As), astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon
(Si), and germanium (Ge). Compound semiconductors such as gallium
arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium nitride, and silicon carbide
 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with
four valence electrons. Silicon is the most commonly used
semiconductor.
 Silicon and germanium are most commonly used semiconductors in
electronic devices.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely
pure form. Ex: Silicon and Germanium

Material Band gap or energy gap Carrier concentration at 300

(eV) K
Silicon (Si) 1.21 (at 00K); ~ 1010 per cm3
1.1 (at 3000K)
Germanium 0.785 (at 00K); ~ 1013 per cm3
(Ge) 0.72 (at 3000K)
Gallium 1.21eV (at 00K); ~ 107 per cm3
Arsenic 1.4eV (at 3000K)
(GaAs)
ATOMIC STRUCTURES OF SILICON AND GERMANIUM

 Both silicon and germanium have four valence electrons.

 The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell
while those in silicon are in the third shell, closer to the
nucleus.
 From the atomic structure of Si and Ge, the Ge valence
electrons are at higher energy levels than those in Si
 Therefore, require a smaller amount of additional energy
to escape from the atom.
 This property makes Ge is more unstable at high
temperatures and results in excessive reverse current.
 This is why silicon is a more widely used as semi-
conductive material.
Covalent bond in semiconductor
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal.
HOLE FORMATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

 An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at temperature 0 K, the

valence band (VB) is completely filled up with electrons and
the conduction band (CB) is perfectly empty.
 At room temperature (300 K), the valence electrons acquire
sufficient heat (thermal) energy and jump into the CB,
becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called
conduction electrons
 When an electron jumps to the CB, a vacancy is left in the
VB within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.
 For every electron raised to the CB by external energy, there
is one hole left in the VB, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair.
 Recombination occurs when a CB electron loses energy

and falls back into a hole in the VB .

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Semi-conductive materials do not conduct current well
because of the limited number of free electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band.
 Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by
increasing the number of free electrons or holes to increase
its conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices.
This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material.
This process, called doping
 A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the
doping process is called an extrinsic material.
The usual doping impurities are :
 pentavalent  atoms  having  five  valence  electrons  (arsenic 
(As), antimony(Sb), phosphorus (P)) or
 trivalent  atoms  having  three  valence  electrons  (gallium 
(Ga), indium (In), aluminium (Al), boron (B)).
 Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it 
donates or contributes one electron to the conduction band of 
pure germanium. 
 The  trivalent  atom,  on  the  other  hand,  is  called  acceptor 
atom  because  it  accepts  one  electron  from  the  germanium 
atom.
 Depending  on  the  type  of  doping  material  used, 
extrinsic  semiconductors  can  be  sub­divided  into  two 
classes : n-type and p-type
 Both the n- and p-type materials are formed by adding a
predetermined number of impurity atoms into a germanium or
silicon base.
N­TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
 The n-type is formed by addition of the impurity elements that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent or donor atoms),
 Examples: phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi).
 In an n­type material the electron is called the majority carrier 
and the hole is the minority carrier.
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
 The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with
impurity atoms having three valence electrons (trivalent impurity atoms or acceptor
atoms).
 These are atoms with three valence electrons such as boron (B), indium (In), and
gallium (Ga).
 In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority
carrier
CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
 The current in a metal is due to the flow of negative
charge carries (electrons) whereas in semiconductor,
the current is due to the movement of both electrons
and holes
 Electron current in silicon semiconductor

 When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, as

shown in Figure
 the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band,
which are free to move randomly in the crystal structure, are
now easily attracted toward the positive end.
 This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a
semi-conductive material and is called electron current.
Hole current in silicon semiconductor
P­N JUNCTION
 If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half of the part is n-type and
the other half part is p-type, a pn junction forms at the boundary between
the two regions and a diode is created, as indicated in Figure.
 The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms
and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers).
 The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity
atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).
FORMATION OF THE DEPLETION REGION
 When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they
diffuse across the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges
(pentavalent ions) near the junction.
 As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the
electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer of negative charges
(trivalent ions) near the junction.
 These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion
region, as shown in Figure
 As electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and
more positive and negative charges are created near the junction
as the depletion region is formed.
 the depletion region has expanded to a point where equilibrium
is established and there is no further diffusion of electrons across
the junction.
 The forces between the opposite charges form an electric field,
as illustrated in Figure by the blue arrows between the positive
charges and the negative charges.
 This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n region
 To move an electron through the electric field, its required to
apply the external energy across the barrier.
 The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion
region is the amount of voltage required to move electrons
through the electric field. This potential difference is called the
barrier potential and is expressed in volts.
SEMICONDUCTOR P­N JUNCTION 
DIODE
 A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material,
usually silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped
as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.
 The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive
terminal. The n region is called the cathode and is connected to a
second conductive terminal.
 The basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown in Figure
BASIC OPERATION OF THE DIODE
 The application of a voltage across its terminals gives three
possibilities:
 no bias (VD = 0 V)
 forward bias (VD > 0 V), and
 reverse bias (VD < 0 V).
 No bias:
 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in
any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
Reverse bias (VD < 0 V):
 Reverse bias is the condition that prevents current through
the diode
 the negative terminal of the VBIAS source is connected to the p
region, and the positive terminal is connected to the n region
 If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a large
enough value, reverse breakdown occurs
 minority conduction-band electrons acquire enough energy from
the external source to accelerate toward the positive end of the
diode, colliding with atoms and knocking valence electrons into
the conduction band
FORWARD BIAS
 A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the
positive potential to the p-type material and the negative potential
to the n-type material as shown in Fig.
 The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure”
electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-type material to
recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the width of
the depletion region as shown in
The resulting minority­carrier flow of electrons from the p­type material to 
the n­type material (and of holes from the n­type material to the p­type 
material) has not changed in magnitude (since the conduction level is 
controlled primarily by the limited number of impurities in the material), 
but the reduction in the width of the depletion region has resulted in a heavy 
majority flow across the junction. 
An electron of the n­type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the 
junction due to the reduced depletion region and a strong attraction for the 
positive potential applied to the p­type material. 
As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue 
to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, 
re­
DIODES REPRESENTATION

Diode symbol

Diode equivalent circuit

Diode configurations in the circuit analysis
Example 1: Determine ID and V0 for the given circuit shown in fig.

 E = 12 V (0.7 V 0.3 V) = 1 V
Therefore both Si and Ge diodes are in
forward bias
 Example 2: Determine ID, VD2, and Vo for the circuit shown in fig.

First determine the state of diode:

D1 is forward bias
D2 is reverse bias

E =
Example 3:

Since the applied voltage is greater

than 0.7 V, both the diodes are in the
ON state or FB
Example 4:
• when the supply is turned on
it will increase from 0 to 12
V over a period of time
(probably measurable in
milliseconds).
• At the instant during the rise
that 0.3 V is established
across the germanium diode
it will turn “on” and
maintain a level of 0.3 V.
• The silicon diode will never
have the opportunity to
capture its required 0.7 V
and therefore remains in its
open-circuit state as shown
in Fig.
 Example 5: Determine ID and Vo for the circuit shown in fig.

Step 1: Assume that the diode is in

forward bias (ON) state)
Step 2: Find the current passing
through the diode, if ID > 0 then our
assumption is correct otherwise, the
diode is in reverse bias.
Example 6:
Example 7:
 DIODE AS SWITCH
 When forward­biased, the diode ideally acts as a 
closed (on) switch
 When reverse­biased, it acts as an open (off) switch
 DIODE AS RECTIFIER
 The electric power distribution networks provide alternating
voltage (i.e. 230V and 50 Hz frequency).
 Most electronic circuits require DC supply.
 Examples:  consumer  electronics  (televisions,  DVDs,  etc.), 
computers,  industrial  controllers,  and  most  laboratory 
instrumentation systems and equipment
 When an electric device is powered by the electric power
distribution network
 the voltage needs to be turned into DC , this is called rectification and
it needs to be converted to a lower value.
 This can be done is several ways:
 a transformer can be used to decrease the amplitude of the
alternating signal and a rectifier is used to produce a DC
signal as shown in fig.
AC to DC conversion

Role of different circuit components

Transformer:
• Step down AC voltage amplitude to the desired DC voltage
(by selecting an appropriate turn ratio N1/N2 for the
transformer)
Rectifier:
• converts an ac input to a unipolar output
Filter:
• convert the pulsating input to a nearly constant dc output
Regulator:
• Reduce the ripple of the dc voltage
 RECTIFIER
 A device, which is capable of converting a sinusoidal
input wave form with a non-zero average component is
called a rectifier.
 Two types of diode rectifiers
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
 Center tapped rectifier
 Bridge rectifier
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
 A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor,
RL, forming a half-wave rectifier
During the interval t = 0 → T/2
For the period T/2 → T
Output signal is defined as 

The current signal in the circuit is 
defined as 
 The root mean square (RMS) or ac value of the current
signal is defined as

  Use: 

Similarly for input voltage signal

Peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is

the maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak
of the input cycle when the diode is reverse biased
For half wave rectifier PIV = Vm
Full wave rectifier: center tapped
Full-wave bridge rectifier

.
For the period 0 → T/2 (+ ve half cycle)
During negative half cycle (T/2 → T )
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

 Mainly two parameters are used to determine the

performance of rectifier
 Efficiency of the rectifier
 Ripple factor
EFFICIENCY OF THE RECTIFIER

 
The ratio of dc power output to the applied input 

a.c power is known as rectifier efficiency, denoted 
by η.

                    η = 
For half wave rectifier: and  
η = 
For full wave rectifier: and 
η = 812
 RIPPLE FACTOR
Ripple factor is a measure of effectiveness of a rectifier
circuit and defined as a ratio of RMS value of ac
component to the dc component in the rectifier output.

 Forhalf wave rectifier: and ,

ripple factor = 1.21

 Forfull wave rectifier: and ,

ripple factor = 0.48