Digestive System

Functions of Digestive System

• Ingestion of food
• Secretion
• Digestion of food
• Absorption of
nutrients
• Elimination of waste
Functions of Digestive System

• Ingestion of food
– Food and water enter
the body through the
mouth
– Process of eating
Functions of Digestive System

• Secretion
– cells within the walls
of the GI tract
andaccessory
digestive organs
secrete a total of
about 7 liters ofwater,
acid, buffers, and
enzymes
Functions of Digestive System

• Propulsion
– is the movement of food
along the digestive tract.
The major means of
propulsion is peristalsis, a
series of alternating
contractions and
relaxations of smooth
muscle that lines the walls
of the digestive organs and
that forces food to move
forward.
Functions of Digestive System

• Digestion of food
– During the process of
digestion, food is
broken down from
complex particles to
smaller molecules
that can be absorbed.
Functions of Digestive System

• Absorption of
nutrients
– The epithelial cells
that line the lumen of
small intestine absorb
the small molecules of
nutrients that result
from digestive
process
Functions of Digestive System

• Elimination of wastes
– Undigested materials,
such as fiber from
food, plus waste
products excreted into
the digestive tract are
eliminated in the
feces.
Histology

• Digestive Tract • Accesosory Organs

– Consists of – Consists of
• Mouth • Teeth
• Pharynx • Tongue
• Esophagus • Salivary glands
• Stomach • Liver
• Small intestine • Gallbladder
• Large intestine • Pancreas
• Anus
Histology

• Nearly all segments in digestive tract

consists of four layers called tunics
• Tunics
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa or Adventitia
Histology

1. Mucosa(inner lining of the GI tract)

– Consists of
• Mucous epithelium (epithelial tissue)
• Lamina propia (loose connective tissue)
• Muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle)
– Epithelium in mouth, esophagus, and anus
resist abrasion
– Epithelium in stomach and intestine absorbs
and secretes
Histology

1. Mucosa(inner lining of the GI tract)

Histology

2. Submucosa
– Thick layer of loose connective tissue
containing nerves, blood vessels, and small
glands.
– Binds the mucosa to the muscularis.
– Plexus
• Extensive network of nerve cell processes
(Autonomic nerves)
Histology

2. Submucosa
Histology

3. Muscularis
– consists of inner layer of circular smooth muscle and
outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscles
– muscularis of the mouth, pharynx, and superior and
middle parts of the esophagus contains skeletal
muscle that produces voluntary swallowing
– also forms the external anal sphincter, which permits
voluntary control of defecation.
Histology

3. Muscularis
Histology

4. Serosa or Adventitia
– Serosa
• is a serous membrane composed of areolar
connective tissue and simple squamous
epithelium (mesothelium).
• visceral peritoneum because it forms a portion of
the peritoneum
– Adventitia
• a single layer of areolar connective tissue
• Regions of digestive tract that are not covered by
peritoneum are covered by this. (esophagus)
Histology

4. Serosa(outer layer)
Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Enteric Nervous System

– “brain of the gut”
– Neurons of the ENS are arranged into two
plexuses:
• myenteric plexus(plexus of Auerbach) located
between the longitudinal and circular smooth
muscle layers of the muscularis
• submucosal plexus(plexus of Meissner) found
within the submucosa
Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Myenteric plexus
– Motor neuron in this plexus mostly controls
GI tract motility (movement), particularly the
frequency and strength of contraction of the
muscularis.
Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Submucosal plexus
– Motor neurons in this plexus supply the
secretory cells of the mucosal epithelium,
controlling the secretions of the organs of the
GI tract.
Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Enteric Nervous System

– Contains motor neurons, interneurons,
and sensory neurons
– interneurons of the ENS interconnect the
neurons of the myenteric and submucosal
plexuses.
– Sensory neurons of the ENS supply the
mucosal epithelium and contain receptors
that detect stimuli in the lumen of the GI tract.
Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Enteric Nervous System

– Wall of the GI tract contains two major types
of sensory receptors:
• chemoreceptors, which respond to certain
chemicals in the food present in the lumen
• mechanoreceptors, such as stretch receptors, that
are activated when food distends (stretches) the
wall of a GI organ.
Anatomy and Physiology

1. Peritoneum
– is the largest serous membrane of the body;
it consists of a layer of simple squamous
epithelium (mesothelium) with an underlying
supporting layer of areolar connective tissue.
• Consists of parietal peritoneum (lines the wall of
the abdominal cavity) and visceral peritoneum
(covers some of the organs in the cavity and is their
serosa)
Anatomy and Physiology

5 major peritoneal folds

a. Greater omentum
b. Falciform ligament
c. Lesser omentum
d. Mesentery
e. Mesocolon
Anatomy and Physiology

Greater omentum
– the largest peritoneal fold, drapes over the
transverse colon and coils of the small intestine like a
“fatty apron”
– Contains a considerable amount of adipose tissue.
Falciform ligament
– attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal
wall and diaphragm
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Lesser omentum
– it connects the stomach and duodenum to the
liver
– pathway for blood vessels entering the liver
and contains the hepatic portal vein, common
hepatic artery, and common bile duct, along
with some lymph nodes
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Mesentery
– binds the jejunum and ileum of the small intestine to
the posterior abdominal wall
– largest peritoneal fold
Mesocolon
– Two separate folds of peritoneum
– bind the transverse colon (transverse mesocolon)
and sigmoid colon (sigmoid mesocolon) of the large
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Anatomy and Physiology

– mesentery and mesocolon hold the intestines

loosely in place, allowing movement as
muscular contractions mix and move the
luminal contents along the GI tract.
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– Connects the esophagus to the duodenum,
the first part of the small intestine
– serve as a mixing chamber and holding
reservoir
– At appropriate intervals after food is ingested,
the stomach forces a small quantity of
material into the first portion of the small
intestine
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– it is the most distensible part of the GI tract
and can accommodate a large quantity of
food
• Four main regions the cardia, fundus,
body, and pyloric part
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– Cardia surrounds the opening of the esophagus into
the stomach
– Fundus, rounded portion superior to and to the left
of the cardia
– Body, large central portion of the stomach
– Pyloric part is divisible into three regions. pyloric
antrum, pyloric canal, and pylorus
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– Pyloric part
• pyloric antrum connects to the body of the
stomach
• pyloric canal leads to the third region
• pylorus connects to the duodenum
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies
in large folds, or rugae.
– The pylorus communicates with the
duodenum of the small intestine via a smooth
muscle sphincter called the pyloric
sphincter
Anatomy and Physiology

Stomach
– gastric glands have 3 exocrine gland cells
• mucous neck cells secrete mucus
• Parietal cells produce intrinsic factor (needed for
absorption of vitamin B12) and hydrochloric acid
• chief cells secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase
– G cells a type of enteroendocrine cell that
secretes gastrin
– These three forms gastric juice which totals
2000-3000ml per day
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Digestion
– Propulsion process that moves gastric contents
from the body of the stomach down into the antrum
– Retropulsion process that moves gastric content
away from the narrow pyloric sphincter if the food is
too large.
– As the cycle repeats, gastric contents are mixed with
gastric juice and result to a soupy liquid called
chyme
– Gastric emptying only about 3 mL of chyme
moves through the pyloric sphincter at a time.
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
– consists of a head, a body, and a tail and is
usually connected to the duodenum by two
ducts
• Head is the expanded portion of the organ near
the curve of the duodenum
• left of the head are the central body
• the tapering tail
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
– Pancreatic juices are secreted by exocrine
cells into small ducts that ultimately unite to
form two larger ducts, the pancreatic duct
and the accessory duct
– pancreatic duct, or duct of Wirsung, is larger than
accessory duct
• joins the common bile duct from the liver and
gallbladder and enters the duodenum as a dilated
common duct called the hepatopancreatic
ampulla
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
– Accessory duct (duct of Santorini) leads from
the pancreas and empties
• into the duodenum about 2.5 cm (1 in.) superior to
the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
– is made up of small clusters of glandular
epithelial cells.
– 99% of the clusters, called acini(exocrine)
• acini secrete a mixture of fluid and digestive
enzymes called pancreatic juice
– 1% of the clusters, called pancreatic islets
(islets of Langerhans)(endocrine)
• glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic
polypeptide
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
– produces 1200–1500 mL of pancreatic juice,
a clear, colorless liquid consisting mostly
– of water, some salts, sodium bicarbonate,
and several enzymes
• sodium bicarbonate (buffers acidic gastric juice in
chyme)
Anatomy and Physiology

Pancreas
• Enzymes
– Pancreatic amylase(starch-digesting enzyme)
– Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase (digest proteins
into peptides)
– Pancreatic lipase (triglyceride–digesting enzyme
in adults)
– Ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease(nucleic acid–
digesting enzymes)
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver and Gallbladder

– Liver is the heaviest gland of the body,
weighing about 1.4 kg (about 3 lb) in an
average adult
– Gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is
located in a depression of the posterior
surface of the liver.
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
– divided into two principal lobes by falciform
ligament
• a large right lobe
• a smaller left lobe
– Right lobe
• inferior quadrate lobe
• posterior caudate lobe
Anatomy and Physiology

Gallbladder
– Fundus (projects inferiorly beyond the
inferior border of the liver)
– Body (the central portion)
– Neck (the tapered portion)
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
1. Hepatocytes
– major functional cells of the liver and
perform a wide array of metabolic,
secretory, and endocrine functions
– specialized epithelial cells with 5 to 12
sides that make up about 80% of the
volume of the liver
– form complex three-dimensional
arrangements called hepatic laminae
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
1. Hepatocytes
– hepatic laminae
• are plates of hepatocytes one cell thick bordered
on either side by the endothelial-lined vascular
spaces called hepatic sinusoids
• Grooves in the cell membranes between
neighboring hepatocytes provide spaces for
canaliculi into which the hepatocytes secrete bile(a
yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid secreted by
hepatocytes, serves as both an excretory product and a
digestive secretion)
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
2. Bile canaliculi
– are small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile
produced by the hepatocytes

3. Hepatic sinusoids
– highly permeable blood capillaries between rows of
hepatocytes that receive oxygenated blood from
branches of the hepatic artery and nutrient-rich
deoxygenated blood from branches of the hepatic
portal vein.
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Hepatocytes bile duct system
1.Hepatic lobule
• is shaped like a hexagon
• its center is the central vein, and radiating out
from it are rows of hepatocytes and hepatic
sinusoids.
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Hepatocytes bile duct system
2. Portal lobule
• emphasizes the exocrine function of the liver, that
is, bile secretion
• the bile duct of a portal triad is taken as the center
• defined by three imaginary straight lines that
connect three central veins that are closest to the
portal triad
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Hepatocytes bile duct system
3. Hepatic acinus
• preferred structural and functional unit of the liver
• is an approximately oval mass that includes
portions of two neighboring hepatic lobules
• Hepatocytes in the hepatic acinus are arranged in
three zones around the short axis, with no sharp
boundaries between them
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Zone 1
• Cells in zone 1 are closest to the branches of the
portal triad and the first to receive incoming
oxygen, nutrients, and toxins from incoming blood
• Zone 1 cells are the last ones to die if circulation
is impaired and the first ones to regenerate.
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Zone 3
• are farthest from branches of the portal triad and
are the last to show the effects of bile obstruction
or exposure to toxins, the first ones to show the
effects of impaired circulation, and the last ones to
regenerate.
• also are the first to show evidence of fat
accumulation
Anatomy and Physiology

Liver
Zone 2
• zone 2 have structural and functional
characteristics intermediate between the cells in
zones 1 and 3
Anatomy and Physiology

Gallbladder
– Contraction of the smooth muscle fibers
ejects the contents of the gallbladder into the
cystic duct
– Stores and concentrates the bile produced by
the liver (up to tenfold) until it is needed in the
small intestine.
Anatomy and Physiology

Blood supply of liver