Interference of waves

Coherent waves must have a constant phase difference.

This means they must have the same frequency. Often
the phase difference is zero but it doesn't have to be.

Light is emitted by electron transitions within individual

atoms. Thus waves from the same source will have the
same frequency but will not be coherent as the phase
difference will vary. (Except for laser light)

For coherence the wave must come from the same

position on the light source – division of wavefront.

Or from the same wave which is split in two by reflection

– division of amplitude
For interference in air (vacuum)
n 
Constructive path difference = m mn = 0,1,2…
Destructive n + ½) 
path difference = ((m

For interference in another medium we have to use the

optical path difference.
water

Optical path length is

the distance for the
same number of
wavelengths in a
vacuum
A B

The two rays have different geometrical path lengths but

have the same optical path length. Ie they contain the
same number of wavelengths.

This means a lens does not affect the phase difference

between rays
 Refractive index n = vacuum
material

So  vacuum = nmaterial

Optical path length = n x geometrical path length

Phase difference = 2 x optical path difference
vacuum

For interference in any material

Constructive optical path difference = m m = 0,1,2…

Destructive optical path difference = (m + ½) 

 Phase Change on Reflection

air glass glass air

Optically less dense

Optically more dense
ie. at a lower refractive
ie. at a higher refractive
index
index
0 radians phase change
 radians phase change
 Examples of interference by division of amplitude

1. Parallel sided thin film

1 2
At each boundary some light is
reflected and some refracted.
air
n=1
Someone looking at rays 1 and
oil d n=1.45 2 would see an interference
pattern. This is caused by path
difference between the rays.
water n=1.33
 1 2
If we assume the angle of incidence to
be near 0 degrees, then the extra
air distance travelled by ray 2 will be 2d.
n=1
This means that the optical path
oil d n=1.45 difference will be equal to 2nd
However, there will be a phase change
water n=1.33 of λ/2 at the first boundary (ray 1),
since the ray is being reflected by a
layer of greater refractive index

The total optical path difference will be equal to?

= 2nd + λ/2
For constructive interference the path difference must be equal to a
whole number multiple of wavelengths
2nd +λ/2 = mλ 1
(m  )λ
2nd = mλ – λ/2 = (m + ½) λ d 2
2n
For destructive interference the path difference must be equal to an
odd number of half wavelengths.
2nd + λ/2 = (m + ½ ) λ
2nd = mλ + λ/2 – λ/2

mλ
d
2n
For destructive interference, m=1 for minimum thickness.
Example
Calculate the minimum thickness of oil which will produce destructive
interference in green light of wavelength 525nm.

mλ
d
2n
1 525  109
d
2  1.45
 1.81 107 m
Blooming – non-reflective coatings
If no light is reflected it will all be transmitted.

For glass with a refractive index

air of 1.5 you would need a film of
refractive index 1.22.
coating
Also this film must be durable.
glass

As the refractive index of a material varies with frequency,

the coating will only be non–reflective to one frequency.

The non-reflective frequency is usually the middle of the

visible spectrum so bloomed surfaces look purplish as
some blue and red light will be reflected.
 2. Thin air wedge – used to measure small thicknesses
D Eye or travelling microscope
Monochromatic
light source
A

B t
 C
x

Angle  for the wedge is very small.

The path difference between the two rays ABD and ACD is
2t.
3 Newton’s Rings

Extended
source Glass plate at 45o

A
B tB x Glass block – optically flat

Fringes are concentric circles.

Reflection at A zero phase change.
Reflection at B  radians phase change

Destructive interference 2t = m m = 0,1,2…

Constructive interference 2t = (m + 1/2) 

Fringe at centre is dark.

 Division by wavefront

Narrow Diffraction
Monochromatic slit grating
Source eg gives where
sodium lamp circular coherent
waves waves hit

dsin = m from Higher

Young's Slits Experiment
The diagram below shows light from a single source of
monochromatic light incident on a double slit. The light
diffracts at each slit and the overlapping diffraction patterns
produce interference.
The first bright fringe is observed at P. Angle PMO is θ
N is a point on BP such that NP = AP
Since P is the first bright fringe BN = λ
For small values of θ, AN cuts MP at almost 900 giving
angle MAQ = θ and hence angle ΒΑΝ = θ
Again providing θ is very small, sin θ = tan θ = θ in
radians
From triangle BAN: θ=λ/d
and from triangle PMO: θ = Δx / D
So λ / d = Δx / D

λD
Therefore Δx 
d
Two points to note:

1. This formula only applies if x<<D, which gives θ

small. This is likely to be true for light waves but not
for microwaves.

2. The position of the fringes is dependent on the

wavelength. If white light is used we can expect
overlapping colours either side of a central white
maximum. The red, with the longer wavelength, will
be the furthest from this white maximum
(Δxred > Δxviolet since λred > λviolet).
Example
A laser beam is incident on two narrow slits of separation
(0.250 ± 0.002)mm. An interference pattern is produced on a
screen (2.455 ± 0.005)m from the slits. The spacing across
ten fringes is measured as (62.0 ± 0.5)mm.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the light.

Δx = 62.0x10-3/10
Δx= λD/d
62.0x10-3/10 = λx2.455/0.250x10-3
λ=631nm

(b) State the uncertainty in the wavelength and express the

wavelength as (value ± absolute uncertainty).
Using % uncertainties:
Uncertainty in d =(0.002/0.250)x100=0.8%
Uncertainty in D=(0.005/ 2.455)x100=0.2%
Uncertainty in Δx=(0.5/62.0)x100=0.8%
The uncertainty in D can be ignored since it is less then one
third of the others.

Total % uncertainty is = √( 0.82 + 0.82) = 1.1%

1.1% of 631nm = 7nm so wavelength = (631 ± 7)nm

(d) State, with a reason, if the fringe spacing increases, decreases

or remains the same if red laser light is replaced by a Helium-
Cadmium laser with a wavelength of 422nm.
Since the wavelength has decreased the fringe spacing
decreases, since Δx  λ
(e) State one way in which you might be able to improve the
accuracy of the experiment, give a reason.

Measure across more fringes, for example twenty fringes. This

would reduce the percentage uncertainty in Δx.