Theories Group Process

Psychoanalytical Approach
Psychoanalytic Group
Introduction
 Alexander Wolf created a model that stresses

psychoanalysis in groups; focus is on the individual
 George Bach and W.R. Bion developed a model

referred to as group psychoanalysis; emphasizes that
the whole group is the client and that group dynamics
are an essential feature to analyze.
Premises
 Importance of freeing unconscious thoughts, of

making the unconscious more conscious, and of using
specific techniques to do so
 The major assumptions are premised on the

importance of the interaction among the id, ego and
the superego.
Differences between conducting psychoanalysis in group
and in individual
Schleidlinger and Spotniz

 Certain processes such as transference, are more
intense in groups because of the interaction of the
members.
 Individual psychoanalysis highlights individual
differences and generic factors, while in group, they are
not emphasized much.
Premises
Approaches/Models where psychoanalytically oriented

groups can be practiced:
 Regressive-reconstructive model emphasizes that
participants will become responsible for themselves
and the society; pushes individuals to continue to
change after the group has ended.
 Repressive-constructive model puts more focus on
adaptation and adjustment of participants without
stressing the creation of newness within culture.
Practice of psychoanalytic theory in a group
 Psychoanalysis is possible in a group setting

 Membership is usually restricted to either psychiatric
patients or analytically oriented individuals because the
theory emphasizes regression and resolution of
unresolved stages of psychosexual development.
 Mainly applicable to counseling and psychotherapy
groups.
 Aspects of psychoanalytic theory may be included in a
psychoeducational group
 Most psychoanalytic groups are heterogeneous in

design; groups are more reflective of the world at large;
promote transference and interaction while
discouraging conformity.
 Should have about 6-9 members and meet once or
twice a week for at least 90 minutes
Specific Advantages of Group Format Over Individual

1.Establishment of relationships similar to those that existed
in families.
2.Opportunities to experience transference feelings towards
members/leader
3.Getting a clear sense of how defenses and resistances
manifested.
4.Group members get feedback from members.
Specific Advantages of Group Format Over Individual

5. Learning that it is acceptable to express intense feelings.
6.Opportunities to learn about themselves and others.
7.Encourages members to examine their ego defenses.
Psychosocial Theory - Erickson
Stresses the importance of the biological, psychological and

social aspects of development
Each stage of life is characterized by a specific crisis that
needs to be resolved.
Each crisis is a turning point in one’s life. We either achieve
successful resolution of our conflicts and move forward, or
fail to resolve the conflicts and regress.
To a great extent, our lives are the result of the choices we
make at each stage.
Questions to be Raised as the Group Work Proceeds

1.What are some of the themes that give continuity to a
person’s life?
2.What are some of the participant’s concerns and
unresolved conflicts?
3.What is the relationship between the individual’s current
problems and significant events in the earlier years?
4.What influential factors have shaped the person’s
character?
Questions to be Raised as the Group Work Proceeds

5.What were the major turning points and crisis in the
client’s life?
6.What choices did the individual make at these critical
periods, and how did he or she deal with these various
crisis?
7.In what direction does the person seem to be moving
now?
In group work, group leader makes participants express their

pent-up or unresolved feelings related to the “task” of each
developmental stage:
Example: Infancy Stage, when the basic task is to develop
a sense of self, others and the world; thus, the need of the
infant to feel wanted and secure.
Implication for Group Work: Group leaders can assist
participants to express the pain they feel and to work
through some of the barriers that are preventing them to
trust others and to fully accept themselves.
Adlerian and Reality Therapy Groups
Introduction
ADLERIAN socially-oriented REALITY THERAPY

(Alfred Adler) approach in working with (William Glasser)
groups
social, democratic, emphasizes on perception

relationship-oriented; and action and its deemphasis
importance of change in the on the past, the unconscious
present and the emotions
Adlerian and Reality Therapy Groups
Introduction
 Two socially oriented approaches to working with

groups.
 Alfred Adler believed that social forces motivate people
 William Glasser, the originator of reality therapy, bases

his theory on the proposition that people have social
needs that they try to satisfy in multiple ways,
Adlerian Groups
 Rudolf Dreikurs (impetus behind establishing group
procedures
 Raymond Corsini
(family counseling groups)
 Donald Dinkmeyer
(packaging Alderian group models)
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 Chief tenet : people are primarily motivated by social

interest
 Social interest not just in others but also in the interests of

others
 ……the essence of normality is having a feeling of concern for

others.
Adlerian Groups
Premise
Other tenets
 The purposefulness of behavior

 The subjective nature of perception
 The holistic nature of people
 The importance of developing a healthy style of life
 The self-determination of the individual to chart a
future based on expected consequences of behavior
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 The purposeful of all behavior. Adlerians believe that

individuals do not act randomly. They act with a goal in
mind, although they are sometimes not aware of their
goal.
 For instance, if Beverly lashes out at Carmen, her intent
may be to protect her privacy, although she may say
afterward, “ I ’ m not sure why I just did that. ” The
general direction of life is from minus (inferiority) to plus
(perfection, i.e. completeness)
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 The subjective nature of perception. Adlerians

emphasize the phenomenological nature of human
behavior. People perceive the world based on their
experiences, not objectively.
 Therefore, if Eric has known only abuse in his life, then

he may perceive the world as a hostile place.
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 The holistic nature of people. For Adlerians, people are

a unified whole, not a collection of parts. People are
more like trees, which grow from seeds and branch out,
than they are like machines, such as automobiles, which
are a collection of parts.
 From this perspective, one answer is usually inadequate
to explain even a simple act.
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 The importance of developing a healthy style of life.
A style of life is the way one prefers to live or relate to

others. Adlerians stress that a faulty lifestyle is based
on competitiveness and on striving to be superior to
others. Lifestyles are often not noticed when a person is
in a favorable situation but manifest themselves when
the person faces difficulties. Lifestyles are developed
early in a person’s development (around age 5), but
they are open to change.
Adlerian Groups
Premise
 The self-determinism of the individual to chart a future

based on expected consequences of behavior.
Adlerians stress that people are creative and can choose

from among a wide range of possible behaviors. All
behavioral disorders are based on failures to choose
wisely.
Adlerian Groups
Practice of Adlerian theory in a group
 Adlerian work is a social, democratic, relationship

oriented approach to working with individuals.
 Emphasizes the importance of the present while

understanding the development of past faulty beliefs
and behaviors based on the influence of the family and
peer group.
 Primarily psychoeducational in nature.
 People can learn from one another. It is non-threatening

and helpful to most
Adlerian Groups
Three Unifying Factors Linking Groups
 Interpretation of a person’s early history in order to

recognize and understand lifestyles
 Stressing of individual, interpersonal, and group

process goals during the duration of the group
Adlerian Groups
Four Phases they go through
 Establishing & maintaining a proper therapeutic

relationship by promoting cohesion
 Exploring the dynamics operation within an
individual
 Communicating to the individual an
understanding of self
 Envisioning new alternatives and goals
Psychodrama Groups
Psychodrama Groups
Premises
 Similar to psychoanalyses: emphasizes a freeing of

individuals from the irrational forces that bind them
into dysfunctional patterns of behaving
 Psychodrama emphasizes personal interaction and

encounter, focus on the here and now, spontaneity
and creativity, full expression of feelings, and reality
testing
Psychodrama Groups
Premises
 Heart of psychodrama:
Encounter, an existential concept that involves total

physical and psychological contact among persons on
an intense, concrete and complex basis in the here
and now.
Psychodrama Groups
Premises
 Main concepts: Spontaneity, Situation, Tele,

Catharsis, Insight
 Spontaneity: Response that reflects some degree

of adequacy to the situation
 Situation: Emphasis on the present where “natural

barriers of time, space and states of existence are
obliterated.”
Psychodrama Groups
Premises
 Tele: total communication of feelings between

people that cement them together…complete
interpersonal and reciprocal empathy
 Catharsis and insight: End products of spontaneity

and tele. Catharsis is emotional purging and
insight consists of immediate new perception and
understanding about situation
Psychodrama Groups
Practice of psychodrama in a group
 Multidimensional
 Physical and personal factors must be

considered e.g. stage, protagonist, actors,
director, and audience
 Techniques must be employed in a

methodological manner
Psychodrama Groups
Factors
 Psychodrama Stage: Where action takes place
 Protagonist: Person whole is subject of psychodrama
 Actors: Those play the parts of other important
people
 Director: Guides the protagonist
 Audience: Others who may be present
Psychodrama Groups
 The stage is the area where the action takes place. It

may be a formal platform or it may be a part of a
room.
 The protagonist is the person who is the subject of the

psychodrama enactment. He or she play many parts.
Psychodrama Groups
 Actors are those who play the parts of other important

people or objects in the play. They are called
“auxiliaries” and, with prompting from the protagonist,
they can play the protagonist’s double, an antagonist,
or even a piece of furniture.
 The director is the person who guides the protagonist

in the use of the psychodramatic method to help that
person explore his or her problem. The director is
roughly equivalent to the group leader in other
theoretical approaches.
Psychodrama Groups
 The audience is a term used to describe others who

may be present during the psychodrama. These
individuals may become “auxiliaries” but many may
not actively participate.
Psychodrama Groups
Process
 Warm-up Phase - Director makes sure he is ready to

lead the group and members are ready to be led
 Action Phase – Enactment of protagonists’ concerns
 Integration Phase – Involves discussion and closure
Psychodrama Groups
Techniques
 Creative imagery – Warm up technique inviting pax to

imagine neutral or pleasant objects and scenes.
 Magic shop – Warm up technique useful for

protagonists who are undecided or ambivalent about
their values and goals.
Psychodrama Groups
 Sculpting – Group members use nonverbal methods

to arrange other group members into a configuration
like that of significant persons with whom they
regularly deal ….body posturing
 Soliloquy – Protagonist giving a monologue

 Therapeutic soliloquy – private reactions to
protagonist verbalized and acted out
Psychodrama Groups
 Monodrama – Protagonist plays all the parts of the
enactment. (core feature of Gestalt therapy)
 Double and multiple double – Group facilitator or

member takes role of protagonist’s alter ego and
helps protagonist express inner feelings more clearly.
In case where feelings are ambivalent, two or more
actors represent different aspects of protagonist ’ s
personality
Psychodrama Groups
 Role-reversal – Protagonist switches roles with

another person on stage and plays that person’s part.
 Mirror – Protagonist watches from offstage while

auxiliary ego mirrors the protagonist ’ s posture,
gesture and words
Existential Groups
Introduction
Existentialism: A phenomenological approach
 Addresses what it means to be human

 Focus is human existence – thoughts and anxieties of
a human
 Believe in importance of values, freedom and
responsibility in lifting one’s life
 Discovering meaning in the absurd and tragic events
of life is emphasized
 Focuses on the understanding of the person ’ s
subjective view of the world
Existential Groups
Introduction
 Not a theory
 Built on the work of such prominent writers as Martin

Heidegger, SorenKeierkegaaard, Miguel de
Unamuno, Jean-Paul Sarte, Martin Buber, Paul Tillich,
R.D. Laing, Viktor Frankl, and Rollo May
 What is existentialism in traditional helping situations?

Existential Groups
Introduction
 Because of increase in technology, breakdown of

family, accelerated pace of work, many people seek a
deeper understanding of who they are and what
things mean.
 Who have helped people in focusing applying

existential philosophy and therapy to everyday life and
counseling situations? Irvin Yalom, Rollo May and
Victor Frankl
Existential Groups
Premise
 People form their lives by the choices they make, and

therefore responsibility for what they do and become.
In other words, people are authors of their lives for
better or for worse.
Existential Groups
Premise
 How do they make their  Doing a deed or

lives more meaningful? accomplishing something
 Experiencing a value, such

as the intrinsic worth of a
work in nature, culture, love
 Suffering, by finding a
proper attitude toward
unalterable fate
Frankl (2000)
Existential Groups
Premise
 What happens when an Challenge:

individual does not seek  Relinquish actions/values
meaning in life? that are meaningless and
embrace new behavior
 They choose despair or and thoughts…integrating
psychopathology. the old and new
Existential Groups
Practice of existential theory in a group
 Conducted with an emphasis on psychotherapy,

counseling and occasionally psychoeducation
 Make members realize their potential as human

beings and their responsibilities for making
healthy and self-directed choices
 E.g. increase self-awareness – helping group

member “discover their unique ‘being-in-the
world’”
Existential Groups
Practice of existential theory in a group
 Increase in awareness of personal responsibility,

especially as it relates to interpersonal modes of
behavior
 Productively handling anxiety
 Search for meaning in life

Person Centered Groups
Premises
 Certain conditions must be created within group for

everyone to maximize full potential.
 Communication – expression of empathy,

genuineness (congruence), acceptance
(unconditional positive regard), active listening
(hearing behind words and nonverbal gestures),
self-disclose and unmask pretensions and
facades’ deal with immediate issues of concerns
and when needed confront.
Premises
 Facilitator must be qualified with special training and

experience
 Individuals who participate are healthy and normal.

Premises
Person Centered T Groups

 Less structured,  More structured
theoretical, here-and-  Distinct goals
now oriented and task
oriented.
 Free to talk about past
and present
 More process based
and confrontational
Practice of person-centered theory in a group
 Very crucial: establishing a psychological climate in

which group members can risk being themselves
 Feedback and communication of thoughts and

feelings are also critical components
Rogerian Oriented Encounter Group 15 Stage Process
1. Milling around
2. Resistance
3. Revealing past feelings
4. Expression of negative feelings
5. Expression of personally
meaningful material
6. Communication of immediate interpersonal feeling
7. Development of a healing capacity in the group
8. Self-acceptance and the beginning of change
Rogerian Oriented Encounter Group 15 Stage Process
9. Cracking of facades
10. Feedback
11. Confrontation
12. Helping relationships outside the group
13. The basic encounter
14. Expression of closeness
15. Behaviour changes
Gestalt Groups
Gestalt Groups
Introduction
 Experiential and humanistic approach to change

 Focuses on working with client awareness
Note: Perls asserts that Gestalt therapy complements

but does not replace treatment modalities
Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Principle of holism (integration)
 Individuals carry around emotional debris

(i.e unfinished business) from the past
 Series of exercises bring about integration, that is

the person becomes more complete – the sum of
his or her individual experiences
 Ex of technique: empty chair technique

Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Principle of Awareness
 People are free to choose only when they are self-

aware – that is, in touch with their existence and
what it means to be alive
 The what of existence is the here and now
 Example of technique: Awareness and dialogue

between others and oneself or between two
different aspects of oneself
Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Principle of figure/ground
 Figure: experiences that are most important, such

as deciding how one will approach a hostile person
 Background: experiences that are less pressing

such as what one will do after dinner
Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Principle of Polarities
 If people are to meet their needs, they must first

differentiate their perceptual field into
opposites/poles e.g. passive/active good/bad
 Example of technique: Express both sides of a

polarity or conflict and then integrate this
experience (individual as to be in touch with the
opposite sides of the situation)
Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Gestalt group process built on four premises
 Groups are multidimensional systems that operate on

several levels at once
 Groups, people, are holistic with all their functions

interrelated….impossible to understand the person in
the group outside of the context of the group.
Gestalt Groups
Premises
Gestalt Group Process
 People are proactive in making choices, especially if

they are aware and living in the present
 Individuals are intrinsically neutral, neither positive nor

negative – without a predetermined set of responses
Gestalt Groups
Premises
 Awareness (i.e. total organismic response) gives

people self-cohesiveness and enables them……and
enables them to choose an active way of dealing with
the polarities of their life.
 Thus, Gestalt group process stresses

 Increasing awareness
 Choice
 Meaningfulness
 Integrative wholeness
 Closure
Gestalt Groups
Practice of gestalt theory in a group
 One style is the “hot seat” psychotherapy in a group

setting – focus is on one person in the presence of
other group members
 Another style is more interactive involving direct, here-

and-now communication among group members
 Third style is mixture of the interactive and one-on-

one. (Dual-focused Gestalt group work)
Gestalt Groups
 Despite diversity in procedure, practitioners
 Stay centered on the here-and-now
 Ask members to work on a specific problem to help

foster greater awareness.
 Emphasis is on behavioral rather than cognitive

processes. (refers to group as growth experience)
Gestalt Groups
 Use a series of experiments and exercises to help

members achieve greater awareness and growth
 Experiments are nonplanned experiences
 Exercises are planned

Gestalt Groups
Gestalt Experiments and Exercises
 Revolve around five main themes
 Enactment
 Directed behavior
 Fantasy
 Dreams
 Homework
Gestalt Groups
Enactment
 Making the Rounds – warm game in which

confrontation is heightened
 Rehearsal – say out loud what they are thinking

internally
 Role reversal – act the opposite of what they feel

Gestalt Groups
Directed Behavior
 Body Language – Emphasis is on what a

person’s body is doing e.g. What is your hand
saying? Result is integration of mind and
awareness
Gestalt Groups
 Changing questions to statements

 Member who has raised a question is asked to make it
into a statement.
 Do you really think that is why you did not succeed?
I do not think that is why you were unsuccessful.
 Helps all group members become more aware of their
true feeling
 Eliminates condeming questions e.g.
Don’t you think you should feel differently?
Gestalt Groups
 Empty Chair Technique
 Helps group members deal with different

aspects of their personalities.
 One variation. Participant asked to put into the

chair all the feelings that opposite of the way
he or she usually feels. Then, switches seats
and becomes the feelings put into the chair
 Promotes integration of feelings and

thoughts
Gestalt Groups
 Second variation – unfinished business is

the focus. Participants asked to put the
object, feeling or person in the empty
chair and say goodbye.
Gestalt Groups
 Variation is top dog/underdog dialogue.
 Group members asked to examine the top dog

introjections they have taken in from parents
(“shoulds” and “you”) and their own real feelings
about situations.
 (You should always be polite but sometimes I do not

feel that way.) They are then asked to carry on a
dialogue between these two aspects of themselves
before the group or with another member.
Gestalt Groups
Fantasy Exercises
 Participants act as if they were doing what they hoped

for e.g. conveying repressed feelings of resentment to
an elderly relative.
Gestalt Groups
 Helps members
 be more concrete in assessing their feelings

 deal with catastrophic experiences
 explore and express feelings of guilt and shame
 become more involved in the group
Gestalt Groups
Dreams: “the royal road to integration”

 dreams are recreated and relived.
 either alone or with group members acting out
different parts of the dream
 Dreams expressions of polarities within individuals
Gestalt Groups
Homework
Technique that primarily involves group members

practicing outside the group what they have learned.
E.g. Carole my make statements to her colleagues
instead of asking them condemning questions.
Transactional Analysis Group
Premises
N
U C
R
The parent ego state is dualistic – both
R
T I
T
nurturing and critical. The function of
U
R I Parent the critical parent is to store and
I C
N A
L
dispense the rules and protection for
G
living. The function of the nurturing
parent is to care for, to nurture.
The adult ego state receives and
processes information from the parent,
Adult
the child and the environment. It
makes the best decision possible.
NA N
The child ego state is divided into 2
AD A AF parts: the Adapted Child conforms to
A T DR
TP U the rules and wishes of parent ego
UT R AEE Child
E
RD
A
L
P state within the self and others. The
A T Free Child reacts more spontaneously,
L E
D has fun, is curious and playful.
Premises
 It is important to be aware of the ego states of people,

for it affects the manner in which they interact with
themselves and others.
 Knowledge of own ego states empowers individuals

and those working with them assess which types of
transactions they are most likely to have and to take
corrective measures.
Premises
 A theory of personality, a language of behavior, and

an organized system of interactional therapy
 Grounded on assumption: we make current decisions
based on our early experience.
 Early decisions on how to behave may not be valid,
useful or empowering today.
 Thus, we need to rethink and redecide these ealrly
decisions in light of present circumstances.
Premises
3 levels where games are played:
 First-degree games - least harmful; socially acceptable
 Second-degree games – more serious and usually result

in some physical confrontation
 Third-degree games – deadly and often played for

keeps; nothing socially redeemable
Premises
 TA emphasizes holds that persons are born with positive

tendencies to grow and develop, but potential must be
nurtured to become a reality.
 Individuals structure their time to obtain strokes (physical

and psychological recognition) in six major ways:
withdrawal, ritual, pastimes, work, games and intimacy
Premises
 People gradually develop scripts, or habitual patterns of

behavior that influence how they spend their time.
 Scripts include transactions (social action between two

or more people) manifested in social (overt) and
psychological (covert) levels.
 Complementary transactions
 Crossed transactions
 Ulterior transactions
Practice of transactional analysis in a group
 TA is preferably used in groups
 Groups serve as a setting in which people can become

more aware of themselves, the structure of their
individual personality, the transactions they have with
others, the games they play and the scripts they act
out.
 Awareness enables persons to see themselves more

clearly so that they can change and strengthen what
they want to strengthen.
 The objective of TA in group treatment settings is to

“fight the past in the present in order to assure the
future.” The Child and Parent ego states represent the
past, whereas the present is embodied in the Adult.
 Therapeutic contracts
 Classic contracts
 Structural analysis
 Transactional analysis
 Game analysis
 Life script analysis
 Redecision contract
Therapeutic contracts are specific, measurable, concrete

statements of what participants intend to accomplish
during the group. They place responsibility on members
for clearly defining what, how and when they want to
change.
Classic contracts are carried out with an emphasis on one

or more of the following: (a) structural analysis (b)
transactional analysis (c) game analysis (d) life script
analysis. To achieve the most complete treatment, all four
need to be accomplished, each one is build upon the
previous level and must be completed in order.
In structural analysis, all group members become

aware of the structure of their ego states and how they
function.
TA involves the diagnosing of interactions among group

members to determine whether they are
complimentary.
Game analysis includes examination of destructive and

repetitive behavioral patterns and an analysis of the
ego states and types of transactions involved.
Life script analysis are people ’ s basic plans involving

transactions and games. They determine life plans such
as living a tragic or happy existence. As a general rule,
scripts analysis is difficult to do in a group. Feelings
resulting from such an experience such as depression or
discouragement must be handled carefully and skillfully.
Redecision contracts helps clients make redecisions

while they are in their Child ego state. This task is
accomplished by having individuals reexperience a past
event as if it were now present.
Gouldings’ approach
Stages of transactional analysis
INITIAL STAGE –
Establishing quality relationship with the members –
Creating a safe place, nurturing, adequate structure,
And support.
Making an inquiry into the member’s actual contract

For change. What are you going to change about
Yourself TODAY? In what ways might you be
Different?
Note: emphasis is on members taking action in the
Here-and-now to bring about change.
WORKING STAGE–
Rackets (e.g. anger racket) members use to justify
Their life scriptss and, ultimately, their decisions
Is explored.
Games are analyzed to see how they support and
maintain rackets and how they fit into one’s life
script.
Discover the original injunction that lies at the bas
of these early decisions.
WORKING STAGE–
Determine the kinds of strokes he received to
support the original injunctions
Members take responsibility for their thinking,
feeling and behaving and are challenged to
discover alternate choices.
To generate the decision and empowerment to
change, situations are remembered and relived
from the Child ego state.
FINAL STAGE–
Group provides support for change.
Planning specific ways to transfer changes from
therapy situation to their daily life.
Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy
Groups
Goal of the CBT Group
 To help clients develop coping skills that

enable them to better manage their
thoughts and their actions
Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy Groups
Emphasizes learning and modification of

behavior as opposed to the treatment of
underlying symptoms
Behavioral Therapy Groups
Strategies of therapy in a group
 Reinforcement is the key to behavioral groups. Within a group,

members reinforce one another for changing specified
behaviors. Usually the reinforcement is positive and takes the
form of verbal and nonverbal approval or praise.
 Extinction is the process of lowering the rate at which a

behavior occurs through withdrawing the reinforcers that have
been maintaining it. Eventually, the targeted behavior will
stop altogether.
Practice of behavioral therapy in a group
 Contingency contracts spell out the behaviors to be

performed, changed, or discontinued; the rewards associated
with the achievement of these goals; and the conditions under
which rewards are to be received.
 Shaping involves teaching behaviors through successive

approximation and chaining. This gradual step process allows
members to learn a new behavior over time and practice parts
of it to perfection.
 Modeling is learning through observing someone else.

Behavioral group leaders often model appropriate behaviors for
their members. Likewise, group members sometimes serve as
good models for others in the group.
 Behavioral rehearsal consists of practicing a desired behavior

until it is performed the way one wishes. The process consists
of gradually shaping a behavior and getting corrective
feedback.
 Coaching is a process of providing group members with general

principles for performing desired behaviors. It works best
when the coach sits behind the group member who is
rehearsing. If the member forgets what to do next or
questions why he or she is doing it, then the coach can
intervene.
 Cognitive restructuring is a process in which group members

are taught to identify, evaluate, and change self-defeating or
irrational thoughts that negatively influence their behavior.
 In the buddy system, members are paired up in dyadic teams

to mutually reinforce and support each other. This type of
learning appears to enhance the change process for each dyad
and the entire group.
REBT Groups
Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy
Groups
Introduction
 Albert Ellis
 1958
 Types of Groups
 Closed ended
 Open ended
 Can be as large as 100
Groups
Premises
 Premises: stoic and humanistic
 One’s thinking about events, not external

circumstances, produces feelings and behaviors
 Self-talk influences mental health and actions
 How to function productively? Change irrational

beliefs
Groups
Premises
REBTC = A-B-C Model of Human Interaction
A = Event
B = Thought Process
C = Feeling state resulting from one’s thoughts
 Four types of thoughts: negative, positive, neutral, mixed

Groups
Premises
Stresses
 Dual Nature of Human Beings = which is that

individuals have rational and irrational beliefs that can
be modified through disputation (feedback)
Discourages
 Self-rating. Instead people are fallible and by avoiding

labels, people are able to live more rational lives
Groups
Premises
Overall
 REBT is a philosophy of life as well as a treatment for

changing behaviors
 Rational thinking will help people quit making wishes

into demands (should, ought, must) in regard to action.
Groups
Practice of REBT in a group
Groups tend to be didactic, philosophical and skills
oriented
 First, leader introduces REBT theory to group
 Second, group members asked to share

troublesome problems or concerns that are
personal in nature
Groups
 Third, situations analyzed using the ABCs of
therapeutic intervention
 Fourth, group members, as well as leader, give

feedback and suggestions to the person who
initially presented
 Feedback: cognitive, imaginal and behavioral

Groups
Disputation: Cognitive
 Involves direct questioning, reasoning, persuasion.

May involve asking question “ why ” – an inquiry
seldom employed in helping relationships such as
counseling and psychotherapy
 Also involves monitoring one’s self-talk

Groups
 Imaginal: Participants  Behavioral: Involves
see themselves in many forms, from
stressful situations and reading (bibliotherapy)
examine their self-talk. to role playing in the
Then they go through group.
sequence again but in
the process modify their
self-talk so it is more
rational.
Reality Therapy Groups
Introduction
 Founded by William Glasser
 Originally(50’s and 60’s) based on the practical idea

that everyone was responsible for what he/she does
 In 80’s, control theory, method on explaining how the

brain works, was added
 In 90’s, choice theory replaced control theory

Introduction
 Successfully applied
 in educational settings e.g. raising self-esteem of

low-achieving students, changing behavior and
attitude
 in populations seeking mental health services
 in multiple cultures e.g. sensitivity to cultural issues
of clients and bias
 in task/work environments e.g. TQM (total quality
movement) where focus is on cooperation within
small groups for better productivity
Premises
 Human behavior is a response to internal needs and

not external factors/events
 Four human psychological needs per Reality Therapy:

belonging, power, freedom, fun (new human brain)
 Very basic psychological need: survival (old human

brain)
Premises
Basic Human Basic Human

Psychological Needs Physiological Need
1. Belonging Origin Origin

in 1. Survival in
2. Power “new” “old”
3. Freedom human human
brain brain
4. Fun
Human behavior, a reaction

to internal needs, not outside
events
Premises
Differences from other system
 Rejects idea of mental illness – People choose to act in a

neurotic manner because there is the desire to control to
world to some extent in order to satisfy needs.
 Emphasis on the “present”, which is the cutting edge of

people’s lives. To control a situation, a person chooses
behavior that is best for him especially in 4 major
relationships:
husband-wife/parent-child/
teacher-student/manager-worker
Premises
 Prefers to refer to transference as a client ’ s

perception
 Emphasis is on “present awareness” – dreams and

the unconscious are part of the equation in making
one’s awareness greater
Premises
 Person must judge his behavior taking into account

personal values and that of society
 Teaches people better ways of fulfilling needs and

taking responsibility for themselves
Premises
 Reality Therapy is humanistic, cognitive and

behavioral in nature
 Abraham Maslow
 O. Mohrer’s integrity therapy – helping people live
up to their moral conviction
 R. Wubbolding’s WDEP = wants//direction and
doing//evaluation//planning
Practice in a group
Two components in using reality therapy
 Setting up the environment

 Always be courteous and determined as well as
enthusiastic
 Don’t argue, belittle, criticize, demean or get
lost in excuses
 Using the WEDP framework
Practice in a group
1. Make friends/establish a meaningful relationship. In

this first step, the reality therapist attempts to establish
rapport with each group member. People are usually
involved in groups because a need to connect with
others. This process is achieved by having the group
leader both screen applicants and then engage them
in conversation or activity soon after they come to the
group. In doing so, the leader also determines, with
the help of the group member, what he or she pictures
as a way of meeting his or her basic needs.
Practice in a group
2. Emphasize present behaviors/Ask, “What are you

doing now? ” This second step focuses in on the
process of choice. Reality therapists stress the
importance of using thinking and acting, rather than
feeling or physiology, to bring about change.
Therefore, group members are asked to concentrate
on behaviors they can control in the present.
Practice in a group
3. Stress whether clients’ actions are getting them what

they want. The emphasis here is on group
members’ judging their behaviors and learning that
their behaviors are within their control. A part of this
process focuses on personal values, whereas, a
second part underlines reasonable rules by which
societal systems live.
Practice in a group
4. Make a positive plan to do better. This is a critical

stage in the group process. It involves “planning,
advising, helping, and encouraging.” It is based on
the accomplishment of the first three stages. The
plan of action is the individual’s, but group members
and the leader can be effective in providing input and
suggestions that will make the plan even more
potent.
Practice in a group
5. Get a commitment to follow the positive plan. It is not

enough to formulate a plan of action; group members
must follow through. “A plan that does not have the
client’s firm commitment is likely to fail”. In making a
commitment, group members take the responsibility
for their lives and in the process, gain more control.
Practice in a group
6. No excuses. At times, group members will not

succeed in their plans of action. In such cases, the
group leader and members simply acknowledge that
the person failed. The past is not brought up, the
excuses are not discussed. Accepting excuses give
persons in the group the idea that they are weak,
cannot change, and are, in effect, unable to control
their lives.
Practice in a group
7. No punishment. “Punishment is the infliction of pain

with no reasonable way to reduce or end the pain no
matter what the wrongdoer does. It is the opposite of
choice and control and often leads to individuals
acting in negative or self-defeating ways. Therefore,
reality therapy stresses that persons who do not
follow their plans of action must live with the natural
consequences.
Practice in a group
8. Never give up. Change often takes time, especially

of the client has a long history of failure. Group
leaders persevere with group members who are slow
to change. This consistency begins to become
internalized by clients. They realize that the leader is
like a good friend who does not give up easily. With
this realization, they often become more willing to try
new behaviors, and the process of change can begin.
Practice in a group
Wubbolding’s Additional Techniques to

Setting Up Environment
1. Skillful use of questioning

 open-ended / inviting
2. Self-help procedure
 focus on the positive
3. Use of humor
 not to put people down
4. Use of paradox
Practice in a group
WDEP framework revolves around specific behaviors
 “W” part of this process, group members are asked

what they want. The question is geared toward
cultural considerations and the commitment of the
person in the group. The leader presses for both
specifics of the answer and a level of commitment
that indicates the person is fully dedicated to the
achieving the want and will do what it takes to reach
a goal.
Practice in a group
 “D” is initially focused on what the person is doing

but extends to where he or she is going.
 “ E ” represents self-evaluation and is to reality

therapy what interpretation is to psychoanalysis – the
directive to strategic and the disputation to REBT.
The self-evaluation can take a behavioral, emotional
or cognitive form.
Practice in a group
 “P” stands for plan of action. It is direction based,

outlining where the person should go. A good plan is
attainable, measurable, immediate, and controlled by
the planner.

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Theories Group Process

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Psychoanalytical Approach

 Alexander Wolf created a model that stresses

 George Bach and W.R. Bion developed a model

 Importance of freeing unconscious thoughts, of

 The major assumptions are premised on the

Schleidlinger and Spotniz

Approaches/Models where psychoanalytically oriented

 Psychoanalysis is possible in a group setting

 Most psychoanalytic groups are heterogeneous in

Specific Advantages of Group Format Over Individual

Specific Advantages of Group Format Over Individual

Stresses the importance of the biological, psychological and

Questions to be Raised as the Group Work Proceeds

Questions to be Raised as the Group Work Proceeds

In group work, group leader makes participants express their

ADLERIAN socially-oriented REALITY THERAPY

social, democratic, emphasizes on perception

 Two socially oriented approaches to working with

 Alfred Adler believed that social forces motivate people

 William Glasser, the originator of reality therapy, bases

 Chief tenet : people are primarily motivated by social

 Social interest not just in others but also in the interests of

 ……the essence of normality is having a feeling of concern for

 The purposefulness of behavior

 The purposeful of all behavior. Adlerians believe that

 The subjective nature of perception. Adlerians

 Therefore, if Eric has known only abuse in his life, then

 The holistic nature of people. For Adlerians, people are

 The importance of developing a healthy style of life.

A style of life is the way one prefers to live or relate to

 The self-determinism of the individual to chart a future

Adlerians stress that people are creative and can choose

 Adlerian work is a social, democratic, relationship

 Emphasizes the importance of the present while

 Primarily psychoeducational in nature.

 People can learn from one another. It is non-threatening

Three Unifying Factors Linking Groups

 Interpretation of a person’s early history in order to

 Stressing of individual, interpersonal, and group

Four Phases they go through

 Establishing & maintaining a proper therapeutic

 Similar to psychoanalyses: emphasizes a freeing of

 Psychodrama emphasizes personal interaction and

Encounter, an existential concept that involves total

 Main concepts: Spontaneity, Situation, Tele,

 Spontaneity: Response that reflects some degree

 Situation: Emphasis on the present where “natural

 Tele: total communication of feelings between

 Catharsis and insight: End products of spontaneity

 Physical and personal factors must be

 Techniques must be employed in a

 The stage is the area where the action takes place. It

 The protagonist is the person who is the subject of the

 Actors are those who play the parts of other important

 The director is the person who guides the protagonist

 The audience is a term used to describe others who

 Warm-up Phase - Director makes sure he is ready to

 Creative imagery – Warm up technique inviting pax to

 Magic shop – Warm up technique useful for

 Sculpting – Group members use nonverbal methods

 Soliloquy – Protagonist giving a monologue

 Double and multiple double – Group facilitator or

 Role-reversal – Protagonist switches roles with