Chemical

Bonding
Objectives:
• Define chemical bond

• Differentiate ionic bond from covalent bond and give

examples each

• Illustrate Lewis electron-dot structure

• Understand formation of ions and ionic compounds

• Discuss the properties of ionic and covalent

compounds
 What is Chemical Bond?

is an attraction between atoms that

forms a chemical substance that
contain two or more atoms
The valence electrons are the electrons that participate in
chemical bonding.

Group e- configuration # of valence e-

1A ns1 1
2A ns2 2
3A ns2np1 3
4A ns2np2 4
5A ns2np3 5
6A ns2np4 6
7A ns2np5 7
 IONIC BONDING
Atoms are changed to ions when one (or more) electron is lost by
one atom and gained by another atom.

1s22s1 1s2 [He]

Li + F Li+ F -

1s22s22p5 1s22s22p6 [Ne]

Li Li+ + e-
e- + F F -

Li+ + F - Li+ F -
 Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
Of Representative Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lost electrons so that cation
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] has a noble-gas outer electron
configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons so
that anion has a noble-gas F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
outer electron
O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
configuration.
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a CATION is formed from an atom of a TRANSITION

METAL, electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and
then from the (n – 1)d orbitals.

Fe: [Ar]4s23d6 Mn: [Ar]4s23d5

Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6 Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
CATION – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom _______ one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na Na+
11 electrons 10 electrons

ANION – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom _______ one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.

17 protons 17 protons
Cl Cl-
17 electrons 18 electrons
A MONOATOMIC ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A POLYATOMIC ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

IONIC compounds consist of a cation and an anion
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit
must equal zero

The ionic compound NaCl

Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
 Some Polyatomic Ions

NH4+ ammonium SO42- sulfate

CO32- carbonate SO32- sulfite
- -
HCO3 bicarbonate NO3 nitrate
ClO3- chlorate NO2- nitrite
Cr2O72- dichromate SCN- thiocyanate
CrO42- chromate OH- hydroxide
 What is Covalent Bonding?

• This is a bond formed by

two electrons that are
shared between two
atoms; often called
Electron Pair Bond
 Why should two atoms share electrons?

F + F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs
 The diatomic hydrogen molecule
(H2) is the simplest model of a
covalent bond, and is represented in
Lewis structures as:

The shared pair of electrons provides

each hydrogen atom with two electrons in its
valence shell (the 1s) orbital.
In a sense, it has the electron
configuration of the noble gas helium.
 When two chlorine atoms covalently
bond to form Cl2, the following sharing
of electrons occurs:

Each chlorine atom shared the bonding pair of

electrons and achieves the electron configuration
of the noble gas argon.
In Lewis structures the bonding pair
of electrons is usually displayed as a
line, and the unshared electrons as
dots:
 The shared electrons are not located in a
fixed position between the nuclei. In the case
of the H2 compound, the electron density is
concentrated between the two nuclei:

The two atoms are bound into the H2 molecule

mainly due to the attraction of the positively
charged nuclei for the negatively charged electron
cloud located between them.
 Multiple bonds
The sharing of a pair of electrons
represents a single covalent bond, usually
just referred to as a single bond
In many molecules atoms attain
complete octets by sharing more than
one pair of electrons between them.

Two electron pairs shared a double

bond
Three electron pairs shared a triple
bond
Lewis structure of water single covalent bonds
8e-
H + O + H HOH or H O H
2e- 2e-

_______________ – two atoms share two pairs of electrons

O C O or O C O
8e- 8e- 8e- double bonds
______________ – two atoms share three pairs of electrons

triple bonds

• Because each nitrogen contains 5 valence electrons,

they need to share 3 pairs to each achieve a valence
octet.
• N2 is fairly inert, due to the strong triple bond
between the two nitrogen
• The N - N bond distance in N2 is 1.10 Å (fairly short)
 Lengths of Covalent Bonds
Bond
Bond Length
Type
(pm)
C-C 154
CC 133
CC 120
C-N 143
CN 138
CN 116
Bond Lengths
Triple bond < Double Bond < Single Bond
 Strengths of Covalent Bonds
Bond energy is the enthalpy change (dH, heat input)
required to break a bond (in 1 mole of a gaseous
substance)

Bond energy is always a positive value - it takes energy

to break a covalent bond (conversely energy is released
during bond formation)
 Writing Lewis Structures
1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing what
atoms are bonded to each other. Put the least
electronegative element in the center.
2. Count total number of valence e-. Add 1 for each
negative charge. Subtract 1 for each positive charge.
3. Complete an octet for all atoms except for H.
4. If structure contains too many electrons, form double
and triple bonds on central atom as needed.
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
Step 1 – N is less electronegative than F, put N in center
Step 2 – Count valence electrons N - 5 (2s22p3) and F - 7 (2s22p5)
5 + (3 x 7) = 26 valence electrons
Step 3 – Draw single bonds between N and F atoms and complete
octets on N and F atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?

3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons

F N F

F
Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion (CO32-).
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 – Count valence electrons C - 4 (2s22p2) and O - 6 (2s22p4)
-2 charge – 2e-
4 + (3 x 6) + 2 = ___________________________________
Step 3 – Draw single bonds between C and O atoms and complete
octet on C and O atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = ___________________
Step 5 - Too many electrons, form double bond and re-check # of e-

2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

1 double bond = 4
O C O
8 lone pairs (8x2) = 16

O Total = ______
 Two possible skeletal structures of formaldehyde (CH2O)

H
H C O H C O
H

An atom’s FORMAL CHARGE is the difference between the

number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and the number of
electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure.

formal charge total number of

total number of 1 total number of
on an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
valence
electrons in the-
free atom
nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( bonding
electrons )
The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule or ion
must equal to the charge of the molecule.
 -1 +1 C – 4 e- 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4
H C O H O – 6 e- 1 double bond = 4
2H – 2x1 e- 2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
12 e- Total = 12

formal charge total number of

total number of 1 total number of
on an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
valence
electrons in the-
free atom
nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( bonding
electrons )
formal charge
on C
= 4 - 2 - ½ x 6 = -1

formal charge
on O
= 6 - 2 - ½ x 6 = +1
 H 0 0 C – 4 e- 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4
C O O – 6 e- 1 double bond = 4
H 2H – 2x1 e- 2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
12 e- Total = 12

formal charge total number of

total number of 1 total number of
on an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
valence
electrons in the-
free atom
nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( bonding
electrons )
formal charge
on C
= 4 - 0 -½ x 8 = 0

formal charge
on O
= 6 - 4 -½ x 4 = 0
 Formal Charge and Lewis Structures
1. For molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are no formal
charges is preferable to one in which formal charges are
present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less plausible
than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of formal
charges, the most plausible structure is the one in which
negative formal charges are placed on the more electronegative
atoms.

Which is the more likely Lewis structure for CH2O?

-1 +1 H 0 0
H C O H C O
H
A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures for a
single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one
Lewis structure. Consider ozone:
+ - - +
O O O O O O

Q: Which O–O bond is longer?

What are the resonance structures of the

carbonate (CO32-) ion?

- - - -
O C O O C O O C O

O O O
- -
Resonance structures of benzene

H H

H C H H C H
C C C C

C C C C
H C H H C H

H H
A common misconception about resonance structures:
The molecule quickly shifts back and forth from one
resonance structure to another. (This is not true.)

And remember this fact about resonance structures:

The positions of electrons, but not those of atoms (nuclei), can
be rearranged in different resonance structures. Thus, the
same atoms must always be bonded to one another in all the
resonance structures for a given molecule.
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The INCOMPLETE Octet (Be, B, Al)

Be – 2e-
BeH2 2H – 2x1e- H Be H
4e-

B – 3e- 3 single bonds (3x2) = 6

3F – 3x7e- F B F
BF3 9 lone pairs (9x2) = 18
24e- Total = 24
F
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule

ODD ELECTRON Molecules

N – 5e-
NO O – 6e- N O
11e-

The EXPANDED OCTET (central atom with principal quantum number n > 2)

F
F F
S – 6e- 6 single bonds (6x2) = 12
SF6 6F – 42e- S 18 lone pairs (18x2) = 36
48e- Total = 48
F F
F
POLAR COVALENT BOND or simply polar bond
is a covalent bond with greater electron density around one
of the two atoms

electron rich
electron poor
region
region e- rich

F
H F
H
d+ d-
e- poor
ELECTRONEGATIVITY is the ability of an atom to attract
toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond.
Electron Affinity - Cl is highest
The negative of the energy change that occurs
X (g) + e- X- (g) when an electron is accepted by an atom of an
element in the gaseous state

Electronegativity - F is highest

The ability of an atom to

attract toward itself the
electrons in a chemical
bond
_________________________________________
Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity:
Difference Bond Type
0 ___________

2 ___________

0 < and <2 ____________

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

share e- partial transfer of e- transfer e-

 Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent,
or covalent: The bond in CsCl; the bond in H2S; and
the NN bond in H2NNH2.

Cs – 0.7 Cl – 3.0 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 ______________

H – 2.1 S – 2.5 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 ______________

N – 3.0 N – 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 ______________

Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds