Simplification of Context Free Grammars: National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

Lecture 20: Theory of Automata:2015
Simplification of
Context Free Grammars
National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

Simplification of CFGs
1. Substitution Rule
2. Removing λ-productions
3. Removing Unit Productions/Chain rules
4. Removing Useless symbols
5. Augmented a Grammar
6. Removing Left Recursion
7. Left Factoring
National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 2

A Substitution Rule
Equivalent
grammar
S  aB
S  aB | ab
A  aaA
A  aaA
A  abBc Substitute
B b A  abBc | abbc
B  aA
B  aA
Bb
National University of Prof. Busch
Computer and -Emerging
LSU Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 3
S  aB | ab
A  aaA
A  abBc | abbc
B  aA
Substitute
B  aA
S  aB | ab | aaA
Equivalent
A  aaA grammar
A  abBc | abbc | abaAc

Computer and -Emerging
In general: A  xBz
B  y1
Substitute
B  y1
equivalent
A  xBz | xy1z
grammar
National University ofProf.

Computer and- Emerging
Busch LSU Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 5
Killing λ-Productions

Killing λ-Productions
λ-Productions are undesirable.
In a given CFG, we call a non-terminal N nullable
• if there is a production N  λ, or
• there is a derivation that starts at N and lead to a λ.
N  ………  λ
We can replace λ-production with appropriate non-λ
productions.

Theorem 23
If L is CFL generated by a CFG having λ-productions, then
there is a different CFG that has no λ-production and still
generates either the whole language L (if L does not include
λ) or else generate the language of all the words in L other
than λ.
Proof by Construction (Replacement Rule):
1. Workout the Nullable Non-terminal
2. Delete all λ-Productions.
3. Add the following productions:
For every production of the X  old string Add new
production of the form X  .., where right side will
account for every modification of the old string that
can be formed by deleting all possible subsets of
nullable non-Terminals, except that we do not
allow X  λ, to be formed if all the character in
old string are nullable
8
• Delete all the Null productions and add new productions

e.g.
• consider the productions of a certain CFG X → aNbNa,
N → λ, delete the production N → λ and using the
• production X → aNbNa, add the new productions
X → aNba, X → abNa and X → aba
• Thus the new CFG will contain the productions
X → aNba | abNa | aba | aNbNa
• Note: It is to be noted that X → aNbNa will still be
included in the new CFG.

Nullable Variables
  production : X 
Nullable Variable: Y  
Example:
S  aMb
M  aMb
M 
Nullable variable
Computer
  production
and -Emerging
Removing   production s
S  aMb S  aMb | ab
M  aMb
Substitute
M  M  aMb | ab
M 
After we remove all the   production s

all the nullable variables disappear
(except for the start variable)
Example
Consider the CFG X and Y are nullable
S  a | Xb | aYa X as X  λ
XY|λ Y as Y  X λ
Yb|X
So the new CFG is
S  a | Xb | aa | aYa |b
XY
Yb|X

Example
Consider the CFG
S  Xa
X  aX | bX | λ
So the new CFG is
S  a | Xa
X  aX | bX | a | b

Example
S  XY
X  Zb
Y  bW • Null-able Non-terminals are?
Z  AB • A, B, Z and W
WZ
A  aA | bA | λ
B  Ba | Bb | λ

S  XY
X  Zb
Example Contd.
Y  bW • A, B, Z and W are nullable
Z  AB
WZ
A  aA | bA | λ
B  Ba | Bb | λ
So the new CFG is

S  XY
X  Zb | b
Y  bW | b
Z  AB | A | B
WZ
A  aA | bA | a | b
B  Ba | Bb | a | b
Killing Unit Productions

Killing unit-productions
• Definition: A production of the form
Nonterminal  one Nonterminal
is called a unit production.
The following theorem allows us to get rid of unit
productions:
Theorem 24:
If there is a CFG for the language L that has no
λ-productions, then there is also a CFG for L with
no λ-productions and no unit productions.

Proof of Theorem 24
This is another proof by constructive algorithm
• Algorithm: For every pair of nonterminals A and B, if the
CFG has a unit production A  B, or if there is a chain
A  X1  X2  …  B
where X1, X2, ... are nonterminals, create new productions
as follows:
• If the non-unit productions from B are
B  s1 | s2| …
where s1, s2, ... are strings, we create the productions
A  s1| s2| …

Example
• Consider the CFG
S  A| bb
AB|b
BS|a
• The non-unit productions are
S  bb A  b Ba
• And unit productions are
SA
AB
BS
Example contd.
• Let’s list all unit productions and their sequences and create new
productions:
SA gives Sb
SAB gives Sa
AB gives Aa
ABS gives A  bb
BS gives B  bb
BSA gives Bb
• Eliminating all unit productions, the new CFG is
S  bb | b | a
A  b | a | bb
B  a | bb | b
• This CFG generates a finite language since there are no
nonterminals in any strings produced from S.

Unit-Productions
Unit Production:
X Y
(a single variable in both sides)
Example:
S  aA
Aa
A B Unit Productions
BA
BProf.Busch
bb- LSU
Removal of unit productions:
S  aA
S  aA | aB
Aa
Aa
A B
Substitute
A B B  A| B
BA
B  bb
B  bb
Unit productions of form
X X
can be removed immediately
S  aA | aB S  aA | aB
Aa Remove
Aa
B  A| B BB BA
B  bb B  bb

S  aA | aB
S  aA | aB | aA
Aa
Substitute
BA Aa
BA
B  bb
B  bb

Remove repeated productions
Final grammar
S  aA | aB | aA S  aA | aB
Aa Aa
B  bb B  bb

Useless Symbols
For a variable to be useful two conditions must be

satisfied.
1. The variable must occur in a sentential form of the

grammar
2. There must be a derivation of a terminal string from
the variable.
• A variable that occurs in a sentential form is said to be reachable
from S.
A two part procedure is presented to eliminate
useless symbols.

Useless Productions
S  aSb
S 
SA
A  aA Useless Production
Some derivations never terminate...
S  A  aA  aaA    aaaA  
Another grammar:
SA
A  aA
A
B  bA Useless Production
Not reachable from S

In general: contains only

terminals
if S    xAy    w
w L(G )
then variable A is useful
otherwise, variable A is useless

A production A  x is useless
if any of its variables is useless
S  aSb
S  Productions
Variables S  A useless
useless A  aA useless
useless B  C useless
useless C  D useless
Removing Useless Productions

Example Grammar:
S  aS | A | C
Aa
B  aa
C  aCb

First: find all variables that can produce

strings with only terminals
S  aS | A | C Round 1: { A, B}
Aa SA
B  aa
C  aCb Round 2: { A, B, S}
Keep only the variables

that produce terminal symbols: { A, B, S}
(the rest variables are useless)
S  aS | A | C
Aa S  aS | A
B  aa Aa
C  aCb B  aa
Remove useless productions
Second: Find all variables

reachable from S
Use a Dependency Graph
S  aS | A
Aa S A B
B  aa not
reachable
Keep only the variables

reachable from S
(the rest variables are useless)
Final Grammar
S  aS | A
S  aS | A
Aa
Aa
B  aa
Remove useless productions

Example
• Consider following CFG
G: S  AC | BS | B
A  aA | aF
B  CF | b
C cC | D
D aD | BD | C
E  aA | BSA
F  bB | b
A Two stage procedure


Satge-1 :
Construction of the set of Variables that derive terminal string
New Grammar from
S  AC | BS | B
TERM will be
A  aA | aF
GT:
B  CF | b
C cC | D S BS | B
D aD | BD | C A  aA | aF
E  aA | BSA Bb
F  bB | b E  aA | BSA
F  bB | b
Iteration TERM PREV
0 {B, F} {}
1 {B, F, A, S} {B, F}
2 {B, F, A, S, E} {B, F, A, S}
3 {B, F, A, S, E} {B, F, A, S, E}

Construction of the set of Reachable Variables

Original Grammar New Grammar from Final Grammar will be
S  AC | BS | B TERM will be GF:
A  aA | aF GT: S BS | B
B  CF | b S BS | B
C cC | D
Bb
A  aA | aF
D aD | BD | C Bb
E  aA | BSA E  aA | BSA
F  bB | b F  bB | b
Iteration REACH PREV NEW
0 {S} ᶲ {}
1 {S, B} {S} {S}
2 {S, B} {S, B} {B}

Removing All
• Step 0: Adding a new start symbol by S0  S

if the original start symbol ‘S’ is recursive.
• Step 1: Remove Nullable Variables
• Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions
• Step 3: Remove Useless Variables

Simplification of Context Free Grammars: National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

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Lecture 20: Theory of Automata:2015

Context Free Grammars

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 2

A  abBc | abbc | abaAc

National University ofProf.

Context Free Grammars

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 7

• Delete all the Null productions and add new productions

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 9

After we remove all the   production s

So the new CFG is

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 12

So the new CFG is

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 13

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 14

So the new CFG is

Context Free Grammars

Killing Unit Productions

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 17

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 18

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 20

Removal of unit productions:

National University ofProf.

National University ofProf.

National University ofProf.

For a variable to be useful two conditions must be

1. The variable must occur in a sentential form of the

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 26

Some derivations never terminate...

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 31

In general: contains only

then variable A is useful

otherwise, variable A is useless

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 32

Removing Useless Productions

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 34

First: find all variables that can produce

Keep only the variables

Second: Find all variables

Use a Dependency Graph

Keep only the variables

Remove useless productions

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 39

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 40

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 42

Construction of the set of Reachable Variables

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 43

• Step 0: Adding a new start symbol by S0  S

• Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions

• Step 3: Remove Useless Variables

National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, FAST, Islamabad 44

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