CHAPTER 12

WATER RESOURCES
 Case History: Long Island

GW pollution: a serious problem on the western end of

the island since beginning of 20th century
GW below Nassau County is tremendous, yet intensive
pumping causing as much as 15 m decline in water le
vel
Salt water intrusion due to decline in water level
Urbanization triggered more serious water pollution: u
rban runoff, sewage and fertilizers, road salt, industri
al and other wastes, landfills
 Global Water Cycle

Cyclic nature
 Global movement of water between different wa
ter storage compartments
Global distribution
 Abundance not a problem
 Distribution in space and over time a problem
 Supply vs. use a problem
 Global Water Cycle

Water’s vertical movement

 Upflow: Evaporation, transpiration
 Downflow: Precipitation and infiltration
Water’s horizontal movement
 Surface runoff
 Shallow subsurface flow
 Groundwater flow
 Global Water Supply

Table 12.1
 Surface Water (1)

Surface runoff
Drainage network
Drainage basin or watershed
Drainage divide
Stream order and size of drainage basin
 Surface Water (2)

Sediment yield in surface runoff

Geological factors: Type and structure of soils and rock
s
Topographic factors: Relief and slope gradient
Climatic factors: Type, intensity, duration, and distribut
ion of precipitation
Vegetation factors: Type, size, and distribution
Land-use practice factors
 Groundwater (1)

Groundwater (GW) profile

Vadose zone (unsaturated zone, zone of aeration)
Zone of saturation
Water table: The boundary of the above two zones
Perched water table: Local water table above a regiona
l water table
 Groundwater (2)
Aquifer: A unit capable of supplying water at an econo
mically useful rate
Aquitard or aquiclude: A confining layer or unit restricti
ng and retarding GW flow
Unconfined aquifer: no overlying confining layer
Confined aquifer: with an overlying aquitard layer
Perched aquifer: local zone of saturation above a regio
nal water table
 Groundwater (3)

Figure 12.9
 Groundwater (4)

GW recharge and discharge

Recharge zone: Area where water infiltrates downward
from surface to GW
Discharge zone: Area where GW is removed from an aq
uifer, such as spring, well, river, etc.
Influent stream: above the water table, recharge water
to GW, may be intermittent
Effluent stream: perennial stream with the addition of
GW when precipitation is low
 Groundwater (5)

GW pressure surface: Generally declining from source

along the flow from recharge area to discharge area
Artesian well: Water self-rising above the land surface i
n a confined aquifer
Cone of depression: Drawdown cone of GW in a
well
 Groundwater Movement (1)
Hydraulic gradient: The gradient of water table, genera
lly following the topographic gradient
Hydraulic conductivity: Ability of rock materials to allo
w water to move through (m3/day/m2)

Porosity: Percentage of void (empty) space in sediment

or rock to store water

Permeability: Measuring the interconnection of pores i

n a rock material
 Groundwater Movement (2)

Table 12.2
 Groundwater Use and Supply (1)

Available GW estimated above the total flow of the Mis

sissippi during the last 200 years
GW as primary drinking water source for ~50% of
the U.S. population
GW overdraft problems (extraction rate exceeding rech
arging rate) in many parts of the country, particularly
some states in the Great Plains region
Estimated 5% of GW depleted, but water level declined
more than 15 m (50 ft) in some areas
 Groundwater Use and Supply (2)

Figure 12.13
 Interactions b/w SW and GW
Overdraft of GW: Leads to lower water levels of stream
s, lakes, reservoirs, etc.
Overuse of SW: Yields lower discharge rates of GW
Effluent stream (in GW discharge zone): Tends to
be perennial
Influent stream (in GW recharge zone above the water
table): Often intermittent or ephemeral
Special linkage area: Sinkholes and cavern systems
in the karst terrains
 Water Use (1)

Offstream use: Removal or diversion from its SW

or GW sources temporarily, e.g., irrigation, thermoel
ectric, industrial use
Consumptive use: Type of offstream use of water with
out intermediate return to the SW or GW, such
as transpiration and human use
Instream use: Navigation, fish and wildlife, recreationa
l uses
 Water Use (2)

In major urban areas

Overwithdrawal of groundwater
Overuse of local surface water
Threats of local urban landfills to the water supply, e.g.
, Long Island, NY
Water import issues and problems: What is distance to
transport? How much water available? From
where? Conflicts with other areas, litigations, and lon
g-range planning
 Trends in Water Use (1)

Based on the data from 1950–1995

SW use far greater than GW use
The rate of water use decreased and leveled off since 1
980
Irrigation and thermoelectric are major consumptive fr
esh water use
Less fresh water use since 1980 due to new tech and w
ater recycling
Trends in Wat
er Use (2)

Figure 12.20
 Water Conservation

Engineering technology and structure (canals): Regulati

ng irrigation and reducing evaporation
Better technologies in power plants and other industri
es: Less use of water due to improved efficiency
Increased water reuse and recycling
 Water Management (1)

Needs for water management

Increasing demand for water use (population and econ
omic development)
Water supply problems in semiarid and arid regions
Water supply problems in megacities of humid regions
Water traded as a commodity: Capital, market, and reg
ulations?
 Water Management (2)

Aspects to be considered: Leopold philosophy

Natural environmental factors: Geologic, geographic, a
nd climatic
Human environmental factors: Economic, social, and p
olitical
Strategies
 More SW use in wet years, more GW use in dry y
ears
 Reuse and recycle water on regular basis as well
as in emergencies
 Management of the Colorado River (1)

Managing the water

 Water appropriation to 7 states in the U.S. and t
o Mexico
 Local needs vs. regional needs (Colorado River co
mpact of 1922)
 The U.S. vs. Mexico (Treaty w/ Mexico in 1944)
 Human use vs. needs of lands (1974 Salinity Cont
rol Act)
 Management of the Colorado River (2)

Managing the river

 Dam construction
 Impact on flood frequency
 Impact on sediment distribution, particularly do
wnstream
 Impact on wildlife habitats
 Controlled and planned floods
 Water and Ecosystems
Ecosystems: changes in response to climate, nutrient in
put, soils and hydrology
General tendency: Increased human use of water, incre
ased degradation of natural ecosystems
Overall reconciliation between multiple water uses
 Water resources development (dams, reservoirs,
canals) and associated impact on surface water e
nvironment
 Reconciling the uses of water: Agriculture, indust
ry, urbanization, and recreation
 Protection of wetlands and water resources
 Emerging Global Water Shortage

Isolated shortage of water: indication of a global patter

n of water shortage
Depleted water resources: over-drafted aquifers, dried lak
es (Aral Sea), troubled streams (Colorado and Yellow Rive
r not reaching seas some years)
Polluted limited water resources due to development and i
ncreased wastes
Demands for water resources tripled as population more t
han doubled last 50 yrs and growing fast next 50 yrs
Global warming: causing more problems
 Applied and Critical Thinking Topics

In your area, which type of water source

(SW or GW) is more important? Why?
If we change the ways we use water, what would be th
e impact on the global water cycle?
Is the global hydrologic cycle a closed system or an ope
n system?
Which continent will have a great impact on its water r
esources from global warming?
End of Chapter 12