Lecture # IV

Synchronous Machines
 Review
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
– Voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
– Torque induced in a current-carrying loop
2. Rotating Magnetic Field
– Proof of the rotating magnetic field concept
– Relationship between Electrical Frequency and the Speed of Magnetic
field rotation
– Reversing the direction of magnetic field rotation
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC
Machines
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
– The induced voltage in a coil on a two-pole stator
– The induced voltage in a three-phase set of coils
– The RMS voltage in a Three-Phase Stator
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines

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 Faraday’s Law
• If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be induced
in the turn of the wire that is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect of time

• If there is N number of turns in the coil with the same amount of flux
flowing through it, then

• “N” number of turns of wire in coil

• Lenz’s Law
“The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil is as such that if the
coils were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause
a flux opposing the original flux change”

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 Induced Voltage
• The induced voltage in the ith turn of the coil is given
as

• Since there is N number of turns

• The equation above may be rewritten into

where

where λ is the flux linkage

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 Production of Induced Force on a Wire
• A current carrying conductor present in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B,
would produce a force to the
conductor/wire. Dependent upon the
direction of the surrounding magnetic
field, the force induced is given by

where:
i represents the current flow in the conductor
l length of wire,
B magnetic field density
• The direction of the force is given by the left –
hand rule.
• If the current carrying conductor is position at an
angle to the magnetic field, the formula is
modified to be as follows

F = ilB sin q
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 Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a
Magnetic Field
• If a conductor moves or cuts through a
magnetic field, voltage will be induced
between the terminals of the conductor
which given as

where:
v velocity of the wire
B magnetic field density
l length of the wire in the magnetic field
• The value of l (length) is dependent
upon the angle at which the wire cuts
through the magnetic field. Hence a
more complete formula will be as
follows

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Simple Loop in Uniform Magnetic Field

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 cos q ab

cos q cd

cos q ab cos q cd
cos q
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 eind = jmaxw sin wt
So we conclude that Induced voltage depends
on Speed Of Rotation
Magnetic Field

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 Review – Basic Electrical Induction
Phenomena
• If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage
will be induced in the turn of the wire that is
– Directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with
respect of time and
– No of turns Transformer Action

• A current carrying conductor present in a uniform

magnetic field of flux density B, would produce a force
to the conductor/wire

Motor Action

• If a conductor moves or cuts through a magnetic field,

voltage will be induced between the terminals of the
conductor
Generator Action
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 Machine Types

• DC Machines
– The working principal does not
involve rotating magnetic field
reaction
• AC Machines
– Machines workings on interaction
of magnetic fields
• Synchronous
• Asynchronous (Induction)
– Squirrel Cage
– Wire wound

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 Few Definitions

• Field windings
– The windings that produce the main magnetic field in a
machine
– For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor,
so the terms rotor windings and field windings are used
Interchangeably.

• Armature windings
– The windings where the main voltage is induced.
– Stator winding and armature winding are the same

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 Part of Synchronous Generator
• Generally a Synchronous Generator must have at least
2 components
– Stator Windings or Armature Windings
– Rotor Windings or Field Windings
• Salient Pole
• Non Salient Pole

Non Salient Rotor Salient Rotor

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Synchronous Generator Construction
• Rotor is a large electromagnet
• Magnetic poles on the rotor can
either be salient or non salient
– 2~ 4 poles Non-salient pole rotors
– 4 or more Salient pole
• A dc current must be supplied to
the field circuit on the rotor
– From an external dc source by means of slip
rings and brushes.
– From a special dc power source mounted
directly on the shaft

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 Synchronous Machine Operation
• Synchronous Generator:
– Idc (DC Current) is applied to rotor winding
– Rotor Magnetic field is produced
– Turn rotor using prime mover
– Rotating Magnetic field is generated
– No Input given through Stator, Nothing is applied to Stator
– 3Φ set of voltage is generated in stator
• Synchronous Motor:
– Apply 3Φ Iac (AC Current) to stator winding
– Idc (DC Current) is applied to rotor winding
– Rotating magnetic field is generated
– Rotor tries to align with it
– As the field is rotating, the rotor starts rotating

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 Slip rings
• Slip rings are metal rings completely
encircling the shaft of a machine but
insulated from it.
• One end of the dc rotor winding is
tied to each of the 2 slip rings on
the shaft of the synchronous machine
• A stationary brush rides on each slip
• Brushes cause problems of wear and
tear

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 Brushless Exciter

• A small 3-phase current is

rectified
• It is supplied to field circuit of
exciter, which is located on
stator
• The output of the armature
circuit of the exciter (on the
rotor) is rectified
• It is used to supply the field
current of the main machine

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 Speed of Rotation
• Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous
• Electrical frequency produced is locked in or
synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of
the generator
• A synchronous generator’s rotor consists of an electro-
magnet to which direct current is supplied
• Rotor’s magnetic field points in the direction the rotor
is turned
• The speed of rotation of electrical field (because of
stator) is given as

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Internal Generated Voltage

eind = 2rlBmwm cos wt For singled loop

eind = N c 2rlBmwm cos wt For Nc loop

E A = Kwm Peak Voltage

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 Equivalent Circuit

• The voltage EA is the internal

generated voltage produced in one
phase
• If the machine is not connected to
a load
– No armature current flowing
– EA = Terminal voltage will be equivalent (VΦ )
• As No Current mean No losses
• But when there is a load
connected
– EA ≠VΦ

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 Equivalent Circuit
• With lagging load , 3Φ
lagging IA will flow
• It will produce a
magnetic field of its
own
• Stator magnetic field
will distorts the
original rotor magnetic
field
• VΦ will change
• This is called armature
reaction

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 Armature Reaction
B = B R  B s
V  = E A  E stat
• Estat ┴ IA
• Estat is proportional to IA

E stat  I A
E stat =  jX I A
V  = E A  jX I A

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 Self Inductance and Resistance of
Armature Coil
V  = E A  jX I A

V  = E A  jX I A  jX A I A  RA I A

Xs = X  X A

V  = E A  jX s I A  RA I A

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Equivalent Three Phase

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Equivalent Circuit – Synchronous Machine

V  = E A  jX s I A  RA I A

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 Phasor Diagram – Synchronous Generator
V  = E A  jX s I A  RA I A V   RA I A  jX s I A = E A
• Unit Power Factor

• Lagging Power Factor

• Leading Power Factor

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 Phasor Diagram – Synchronous Generator
• Comments:
– For a given phase voltage and armature
current, a larger internal voltage EA is
needed for lagging loads than for
leading loads
– A larger field current is needed to get
the same terminal voltage as
E A = kw
– because ω must be kept constant to
keep constant frequency
Or
– Alternatively, for a given field current
and magnitude of load current, the
terminal voltage is lower for lagging
loads and higher for leading loads.
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Power and Torque

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 Power and Torque
• Input power

• Converter Power

• Output Power

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 Simplified Phasor diagram

• Assumption
– Armature resistance RA is negligible
– Load is lagging in nature

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Quiz – 02

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 Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
• There are basically 3 types of relationship
which needs to be found for a
synchronous generator:
– IA and flux relationship (and thus between the field
current and EA)
– Synchronous reactance
– Armature resistance

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 Open Circuit test
• Steps:
– Generator is rotated at the rated speed.
– No load is connected at the terminals. V = E A  jX s I A  RA I A
– Field current is increased from 0 to maximum.
– Record values of the terminal voltage and field
current value
• With the terminals open, IA=0, so
EA = V T
• Construct plot of EA or VT vs IF graph
• This plot is called open-circuit
characteristic (OCC)
• Gives Internal generated voltage of the
generator for any given field current

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 Open Circuit test
• Comments
– At first the curve is almost perfectly linear, until
some saturation is observed at high field
currents.
– Unsaturated iron in frame of synchronous
machine has a reluctance several thousand
times lower than the air-gap reluctance
– At first almost all the mmf is across the air-gap,
and the resulting flux increase is linear
– When the iron finally saturates, reluctance of the
iron increases dramatically,
• The flux increases much more slowly with an increase in
mmf
– The linear portion of an OCC is called the air-gap
line of the characteristic.

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 Short circuit test
• Steps:
– Generator is rotated at rated speed.
– Adjust field current to 0.
– Short circuit the terminals.
– Measure armature current or line current as the
field current is increased
• Construct plot of If vs IA
• This plot is called short-circuit
characteristic (SCC)

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 Short Circuit Test
• Comments

• Magnitude of Ia

• Since BS almost cancels BR, the net

magnetic field Bnet is very small
(corresponding to internal resistive
and inductive drops only)
• Since the net magnetic field is
small, the machine is unsaturated
and the SCC is linear.
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 Machine Parameter – Summary
• Compute
– EA from OCC, IA fom SCC:

– Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at that

field current.
– Get the short circuited current flow IA,SC at that field current
from the SCC

– Find XS by applying the equation above.

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 Machine Parameter – Issue
• EA is taken from the OCC
– The core would be partially saturated for large field currents
• IA is taken from the SCC
– The core is not saturated at all field currents
• Therefore EA value taken during the OCC may not be the
same EA value in the SCC test
• Hence the value of XS is only an approximate.
• To gain better accuracy, the test should be done at low field
currents which looks at the linear region of the OCC test.
• To find out on the resistive element of the machine, it can
simply be found by applying a DC voltage to the machine
terminals with the rotor stationary
• Why DC?
• Value obtained in this test (RA) may increase the XS accuracy

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 Short Circuit Ratio
• What can be the rated quantities
– Rated voltage
– Rated armature current

• Short Circuit Ratio is defined as

“It is the ratio of
the field current (If) required for the rated voltage at open
circuit, to
the field current (If) required for rated armature current at
short circuit”

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 Synchronous Generator
Operating Alone
V  = E A  jX s I A  RA I A E A = kw
• The behavior under load depends greatly
on
– Load power factor and
– Whether the generator is operating alone or in parallel
• From now onwards,
– Disregard RA and
– Rotor flux is assumed to be constant unless it is
stated that the field current is changed
– Speed of the generator will be assumed constant

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 Effect of Load Changes
Load increase
• An increase of load is an increase in real and
reactive power drawn from the generator
• Such a load increase, increases the load current
drawn from the generator

V  = E A  jX s I A  RA I A
Assumptions are as in previous slide

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 Initially lagging Load
• Load is increased with the lagging
power factor maintained
• Magnitude of IA will increase but will
maintain the same angle with
reference to VT.
• As the power factor is maintained
• jXS IA will also increase and will
maintain the same angle
• Since

• j XSIA must stretch between VT (at

an angle of 0) and EA
• Hence the only element which would
change to compensate would be VT

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 Initially Unity Load
• Load is increased with the unity pf
• Magnitude of IA will increase but will
maintain the same angle with reference
to VT.
• jXS IA will also increase and will
maintain the same angle
• Since

• j XSIA must stretch between VT at an

angle of 0 and EA
• Hence the only element which would
change to compensate would be VT
• Changes in VT would be decreasing
• But less significant than lagging load

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 Initially Leading Load
• Load is increased with the
lagging pf
• Magnitude of IA will increase but
will maintain the same angle
with reference to VT.
• XS IA will also increase and will
maintain the same angle
• Since

• j XSIA must stretch between VT at

an angle of 0 and EA
• Hence the only element which
would change to compensate
would be VT
• VT will increase Dr Sajjad Zaidi - Machines 46
 Voltage Regulation Terms
• For lagging loads
– VR would be very positive.
• For leading loads
– VR would be very negative.
• For unity loads
– VR would be negative

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 In Real World
• In practical,
– It is best to keep the output voltage of a generator to be
constant
– EA has to be controlled
• How
– Control the field current If
– Varying If will vary the flux in the core
– It will vary EA accordingly

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Synchronous Generators

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 Parallel Operation of AC Generators
Reasons for operating in parallel:
– Handling larger loads
– Maintenance can be done without power disruption
– Increasing system reliability
– Increased efficiency

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 Conditions for Paralleling
• If not done properly,
– Generators are liable to be severely damaged
– the load may lose power
– If the voltages are not exactly the same in each conductor being
tied together, there will be a very large current flow when the
switch is closed
• Conditions:
– Equal RMS line voltages
– Same phase sequence
– Phase angles must be the same
– The oncoming generator (the new generator)
must have a slightly higher operating frequency

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 Procedure for Paralleling
• Using Voltmeters, adjust the terminal voltage. It
should be equal to the line voltage of the running
system.
• Check and verify phase sequence to be identical
to the system phase sequence.
– Alternately connect a small induction motor to the terminals of each of
the 2 generators.
• If the motor rotates in the same direction each time, then the phase sequence is
the same for both generators.
• If the motor rotates in opposite directions, then the phase sequences differ, and 2
of the conductors on the incoming generator must be reversed .
– Another way is using the 3 light bulb method, where the bulbs are
stretched across the open terminals of the switch connecting the
generator to the As the phase changes between the 2 systems, the light
bulbs first get bright (large phase difference) and then get dim (small
phase difference)
• If all 3 bulbs get bright and dark together, then the systems have the same
phase sequence.
• If the bulbs brighten in succession, then the systems have the opposite phase
sequence, and one of the sequences must be reversed.
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Synchronous Generators

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 Procedure for Paralleling
• Check and verify generator frequency to be
slightly higher than the system frequency.
• The phase changes are observed, and when the
phase angles are equal, the switch connecting
the 2 systems is shut.

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 A Quick Review
• How Synchronous Motor Works
– Provide AC supply on stator
• It will generate rotating Magnetic field
– Provide DC supply to rotor
• It will create BR due to rotor electromagnet
– Both the fields will lock rotor will rotate
• What if the rotor does not have DC input
– No current
– No field
• Short the rotor
• This will be topic of our next few discussions after
few days

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