LECTURE - 6

Thursday 21st Nov 2019

1730-2030 Hrs

1
 SEQUENCE
 Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Conclusion

2
Review of Previous Lecture

3
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 We consider a single particle of mass m constrained to move
in one dimensional field of force
 Classical Description : Requires:-
 Determination of position q and momentum p at a
particular time " t"
 If these two parameters (P, q) are defined at a particular moment
of time then system dynamics may be explained at any other time
 Quantum Mechanical Description: is conspicuous because:-

 [qˆ , pˆ ]  i; [qˆ , qˆ ]  0; [ pˆ , pˆ ]  0

 qˆ q  q q

 pˆ p  p p
4
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 Correspondence Principle:- If   0 then quantum

description reduces to the classical description or one may
say position
q̂ and momentum
p̂ start commuting with
each other

 Useful Algebraic Equations:- The position q̂ and

momentum p̂ follow non-commutative algebra as under:-

qˆ, pˆ   i l pˆ
l l 1
 i
 l
pˆ
pˆ ............(1)

pˆ , qˆ   i l qˆ
l l 1  l
 i qˆ ...........(2)
qˆ

5
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 Useful Algebraic Equations:-

 Proof:  
LHS of Eq(1)  qˆ , pˆ l
 qˆ , pˆ pˆ   pˆ qˆ , pˆ  qˆ , pˆ  pˆ
l 1 l 1 l 1

 pˆ qˆ , pˆ  ipˆ
l 1 l 1

 pˆ qˆ , pˆ pˆ   ipˆ
l 2 l 1

 pˆ  pˆ qˆ , pˆ  qˆ , pˆ  pˆ   ipˆ

l 2 l 2 l 1

 pˆ qˆ , pˆ  pˆ qˆ , pˆ  pˆ  ipˆ

2 l 2 l 2 l 1

 pˆ qˆ , pˆ  2ipˆ
2 l 2 l 1

Similarly : p r [qˆ , pˆ l -r ] + ripˆ l -1

Thus : p l [qˆ , pˆ l -l ] + lipˆ l -1 = p l [qˆ , pˆ 0 ] + lipˆ l -1
⇒ p l [qˆ ,1] + lipˆ l -1 = p l (0) + lipˆ l -1 = lipˆ l -1 = RHS of Eq.6 (1)
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 Analogously for Eq. (2) we have:-

 Proof: LHS of Eq(2)  pˆ , qˆ l 
  
 pˆ , qˆqˆ l 1  qˆ pˆ , qˆ l 1   pˆ , qˆ qˆ l 1

 qˆ  pˆ , qˆ  iqˆ
l 1 l 1

 qˆ  pˆ , qˆqˆ   ipˆ
l 2 l 1

 qˆ qˆ  pˆ , qˆ   pˆ , qˆ qˆ   iqˆ

l 2 l 2 l 1

 qˆ  pˆ , qˆ  qˆ  pˆ , qˆ qˆ  iqˆ
2 l 2 l 2 l 1

 qˆ  pˆ , qˆ  2iqˆ
2 l 2 l 1

Similarly : qˆ pˆ , qˆ  liqˆ

l l l l 1

 qˆ l (0)  liqˆ l 1  liqˆ l 1  RHS of Eq.7(2)

Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 The Eqs. (1 &2) may be generalized as under:-


qˆ , F(p̂)  i F(p̂) (3)
p
ˆ

 pˆ , G(q̂)  i G(q̂) (4)
qˆ
 The Eqs. (1 &2) may even be further generalized as
under:-

qˆ , F(q̂, p̂)  i F(q̂, p̂) (5)
pˆ

 pˆ , G(q̂, p̂)  i G(q̂, p̂) (6)
qˆ 8
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:
 Let us consider the operator:
ˆ  i p
ˆ
Q( )  exp( ) (7)


 By considering the commutation relation as under:

qˆ, Qˆ ( )  qˆ, exp(  i pˆ ) 

i
p̂
exp(
 i p

ˆ
)


 qˆ , Q 
ˆ ( )  qˆQˆ ( )  Qˆ ( )qˆ   exp(  i p

ˆ
)  Q ˆ ( )

 qˆQˆ ( )  Qˆ ( ) qˆ  Q
ˆ ( ) (8)

 By operating ket q from right on Eq. (8) we get

as under:
ˆ ( ) q  Q
qˆQ 
ˆ ( )qˆ  Q
ˆ ( ) q  9
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:
 This gives:
ˆ ( ) q
qˆ Q  q   Qˆ ( ) q  (9)

 The Eq. (9) indicates that Qˆ ( ) q  is an eigen ket of

operator q̂ with eigen value q    :

 Therefore we have: Qˆ ( ) q  q  

 Thus:
Qˆ ( ) q  c 1 q   (10)

 The complex conjugate of Eq. (10) gives:

 q Qˆ ( ) c
t 
1 q   (11)
10
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:
 If  be a real then Qˆ t ( )  exp( i pˆ )  Qˆ -1 ( ) as pˆ t  pˆ


 By operating Eq.(11) from left on Eq. (10) we get:

ˆ t ( )Q
q Q ˆ ( ) q  q Î q  c 2
q   q  
1

 q q  c1 q   q  
2

 c1  1  c1  1 For, zero phase value c1  1 (12)

2

 By using Eq. (12) in Eq. (10) we get:

Qˆ ( ) q  q   (13)

 Thus for q  0 we have:

 i p
ˆ
exp   0   (14)
  
11
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 By substituting   q in Eq.(14) we get:

 iq  p
ˆ
exp   0  q (14)
  
q

 Analogously by defining an operator:

ˆ ( )  exp( i qˆ )
P (15)


 By considering commutation relationship as under:

pˆ , Pˆ ( )   pˆ , exp( iqˆ ) 

q̂
 i 
exp(
i qˆ

)

 p 
ˆ, Pˆ ( )  p
ˆPˆ ( )  P
ˆ ( ) p
ˆ   exp(
i qˆ

)  Pˆ ( )

 p
ˆPˆ ( )  Pˆ ( ) p
ˆ  Pˆ ( ) (16)
12
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:
 By operating ket p from left upon Eq. (16) we get:
ˆP
p ˆ ( ) p  P 
ˆ ( ) p ˆ ( ) p
ˆ  P 
 p  
ˆ ( ) p   p    P
ˆ P 
ˆ ( ) p  (17)

 The Eq. (17) indicates that Pˆ ( ) p   is an eigen ket of

operator p̂ with an eigen value:  p   
 Thus we have as under:
Pˆ ( ) p  p  
 P ˆ ( ) p  d p  
1 (18)

 The complex conjugate of Eq. (18) be given as:

ˆ t ( )  d 1 p  
p P (19) 13
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:
 By operating Eq. (19) upon Eq. (18) we get:
ˆ t ( ) P
p P ˆ ( ) p  d 2
p   p  
1

 p Î p  d1 p   p  
2

2
 d 1  1  d1  1 For zero phase d1  1 (20)

 By substituting Eq. (20) in Eq. (18) we get:

ˆ  iqˆ  
P ( ) p  exp 
  p  p   (21)
  

 By setting p  0 in Eq. (21) we get:

 iqˆ 
ˆ  
P  0  exp  0   (22)
  

 By setting   p in Eq. (22) we get: 14

Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

ˆ  p 0  exp  ipqˆ  0  p

P (23)
  

 Thus any momentum eigen ket p may be worked

out from zero momentum eigen ket 0 p by using
Eq. (23)
 By taking complex conjugate of Eqs. (14) & (23) we
get :
ˆ   iq  p
ˆ
0 Q ( q )  q 0 exp    q
t
(24)
  
q

ˆ t  p 0 exp   ipqˆ   p

0P (25)
  
p p
15
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 Now consider the transformation function S ( p; q)

defined as:

S ( p; q)  p q  q p (26)
 By using Eq. (25) in Eq.(26) we get:

 -ipqˆ 
S ( p; q)  p q  p 0 exp   q
  
 -ipq 
 p q  exp   p 0 q (27)
  
 By using Eq. (14) in Eq.(27) we get:

16
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 -ipq   -ipq   -iqpˆ 

S ( p; q)  exp  0 q  exp 
  p 0 exp   0 q
        
p

 -ipq  
 S ( p; q)  p q  exp  p 0 0  q  p  (28)
  
q

 Now consider the following relationship:

p p    p-p (29)

 By completeness relationship we have:



 dq q
-
q  Î (30)

 By using Eq. (30) in Eq. (29) we get:

17
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 
p  dq q q p   dq p q q p    p-p (31)
- -

 By using Eq. (28) in Eq. (31) we get:


 -ipq    ipq 
- dq exp    p 0 0 q exp   q 0 0
 p
   p-p

2 
 -iq p  p 
 00 - dq exp 
     p-p
 
p q

2   p-p    p-p

2
 p
00 q

1 1
 00  Or for zero phase 00  (32)
p q
2 p q
2
18
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Quantum Mechanical Description:

 By using Eq. (32) in Eq. (28) we get:

1  ipq 
p q  exp  -  (33)
2   
 The Eq. (33) gives the transformation function as
we go from q-representation to p-representation:
 Now consider transformation of operators from
one to other representation:
 
ˆ q  q Iˆ A
ˆ Iˆ q  q ˆ
q A  dp

p p A  dp

p p q

  
ˆ p
   dpdp q
  
p p q p A (34)

19
 Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 For Aˆ  pˆ the Eq. (34) may be written as:
 
q p
ˆ q    dpdp
  
q p p q p p
ˆ p

  
   dpdp
  
q p p q p p
ˆ t p

  
   dpdp
  
q p p q p p p

  
   pdpdp
  
q p p q p p (35)

 By substituting Eq. (33) in Eq. (35) we get:

 
1 ipq 1 ipq
q p
ˆ q    pdpdp
   2
exp(

)
2
exp( 

) ( p  p)


1 ip( q  q)

2  pdp exp(



 d 1 ip( q  q)

i dq 2  dp exp(


) OR


 d 1 ip( q  q)

i dq 2  dp exp(


)

 d
  ( q  q) OR
i dq
 d
  ( q  q) (36) 20
i dq
 Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum

 Similarly,
 d
p qˆ p    ( p  p) OR
i dp 
 d
  ( p  p) (37)
i dp

 and,  (q)  q  

1

2  dp

q p p 


1 ipq

2  dp exp(


) ( p) (38)

 also;
 ( p)  p  

1

2  dq

p q q 


1  ipq

2  dq exp(


) (q) (39)

21
Quantization: Example of Continuous Spectrum
 Now consider the transfer function used to represent a ket in a
particular basis:
+∞ +∞

ψ = ∫ dq′ q′
∞
q′ ψ = ∫ dq′
∞
q′ ψ q′

+∞ +∞

ψ = ∫ dp′
∞
p′ p′ ψ = ∫ dp′
∞
p′ ψ p′ (40)

 Where, q  and p  are the weight factors or functions

used to represent  in q-representation or p-representation

22
Measurement of Observables:

Probability Interpretation

23
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

 Let a system be in eigen state l of its observable: L̂

 If measurement of L̂ is carried out then the
measurement will yield eigen value: l

 The system will remain in its same eigen state: l

 If system be in an arbitrary state  ( superposition state of L̂

eigen values:  l  or eigen state of any other observable not
commuting with L̂ )
 On making measurement of we get one of the
L̂

eigen values of L̂ i.e., any one from the set:  l  24

Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

 The measurement of L̂ in the superposition state  will

induce an uncontrollable jump of the state of the system into
one of the eigen states of L̂ , i.e., jump into any one of
states:  l  l

 Thus the single measurement of L̂ when system be in

its superposition state  may not be predicted
 If we measure the observable L̂ a lot many times of the
system being in the same initial state  and average out
all these measurements then the average value of the
observable be given as: 25
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

ˆ Ψ Lˆ Ψ
L = (41)
Ψ Ψ

 The Eq. (1) may be generalized for a

function f of L̂ as under:
Ψ f (Lˆ ) Ψ
f (Lˆ ) = (42)
Ψ Ψ

 Thus quantum average is an ensemble

average:
26
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

 If eigen values of L̂ form a complete “Orthonormal” set

ˆI = ∑ l (43)
then: l
l

 If we multiply both sides of Eq. (3) with f (Lˆ ) then we have:

f ( Lˆ ) = ∑ f (l ) l l (44)
l

 If we choose f (Lˆ ) such that: f (l )   l ,l  , then Eq. (44) may

be written as under:
f ( Lˆ ) = ∑ δ l l = l ′
l ,l ′ l′ (45)
l

 By using Eq. (45) in Eq. (42) we have:

2
ψ l′ l′ ψ l′ ψ 2
f ( Lˆ ) = = = ψ(l ′ ) = Ρl′ (46)
ψψ 1 27
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

l    l  l
2
 In Eq. (46) gives the probability of finding the
value on measurement of L̂ when system is in an
arbitrary  state:
 If we choose L̂ such that: Lˆ  qˆ , and q̂ has
continuous set of eigen states then Eqs. (43) &(44) may
be written as under:
 i.e., for: qˆ q  q q we have:
+∞
ˆI = ∫ dq′ q′ q′ (47)
∞

+∞

f ( qˆ ) = ∫ dq′f (q′ ) q′
∞
q′ (48)
28
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

 As a special case if we define f (q) as:

1 if q′′ < q′ < q′′ + dq′′
f (q′ ) = (49)
0 .............. Otherwise

 By using Eq. (49) in Eq. (48) we get:-

q′′ + dq′′

f ( qˆ ) = ∫ dq′ q′
q′′
q′ (50)

 The probability that a measurement of q̂ will give us a

value of it between q  and q  dq when the system is in
superposition state ψ is given as:
q  dq

q dq   f (qˆ )     dq q

q
q 
29
Measurement of Observables: Probability Interpretation

q′ + dq′

⇒ Ρq′ dq′ = ∫
q′
ψ q′ dq′ q′ ψ

2
⇒ Ρq′ dq′ = q′ ψ dq′ (51)

 i.e., the probability that the measurement of q̂ on the

system in state ψ is found to have value between q 

and q  dq is found as:

2
q dq  q  dq

30
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle

31
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Statement: If  and B̂ are two observables such that
ˆ , Bˆ ]  iCˆ , then ( A) 2 (B) 2 
[A 1
C
2
4

 Meaning: If  and B̂ are two non commuting variables

such that both of these may not be measured simultaneously
ˆ , Bˆ ]  iCˆ and Ĉ may be an
with complete precision, rather [ A
observable or a constant, then the product of mean-square-
deviations of  and B̂ will satisfy:- ( A) 2 (B) 2  1
C
2
4

32
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Schwartz Inequality:

      
2

 Proof:

 Let u and v be two vectors in n

 The Cauchy-Schwartz inequality states that: u.v  u v
 Written out in coordinates, this says:

u1v1  u 2 v2  u 3v3  .........  u n vn  u12  u 22  .......u 2n . v12  v22  .......v2n

 This equation makes sure that vectors act the way we

33
geometrically expect
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

 Proof Schwartz Inequality for classical vectors:

 For example, we know that:

u  v  (u  v).(u  v)  u.u  v.v  2u.v

2

 Using Cauchy-Schwartz, we have:

u  v  2u.v  u  v  2 u v
2 2 2 2

 So the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality tells us that:

u  v  u  v 
2 2
OR u  v  u  v 

34
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Proof : Let we define new variables ̂ and 
ˆ such that:
̂  Aˆ  A and ̂  Bˆ  B then: [ˆ , ˆ ]  iCˆ

ˆ  Aˆ  Aˆ  Aˆ  Aˆ  0,

 and ˆ  Bˆ  Bˆ  Bˆ  Bˆ  0
 (A) 2  ( ) 2   2 and (B ) 2  ( ) 2   2
 ( ) 2 ( ) 2   2  2 (1)
 Now consider:-
( ) 2 ( ) 2   2  2    2    2  (2)
 Let,   ˆ  and   ˆ  (3)
 Because, Â and B̂ are observables, therefore:
   ˆ t   ˆ and    ˆ t   ˆ (4)
35
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 By using Eqs (3) and (4) in Eq. (2) we get:-
 2  2      (5)
 By Schwartz’s Inequality we have:-
2
        (6)
 By using Eq. (6) in Eq. (5) we get:
2
( ) ( )   
2 2
(7)
 By using Eq. (3) in Eq. (7) we get:-
2
( ) ( )   ˆ ˆ 
2 2
(8)
 Now consider:-
ˆ ˆ  12 (ˆˆ  ˆˆ )  12 (ˆˆ  ˆˆ )
 12 (ˆˆ  ˆˆ )  12 [ˆ , ˆ ] (9)
 Since
[ˆ , ˆ ]  [ A
ˆ A
ˆ , Bˆ  Bˆ ]  [ A
ˆ , Bˆ ]  iCˆ
(10)
36
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 By substituting Eq. (10) in Eq. (9) we get:-
2
( ) ( ) 
2 2 1
4  ˆ ˆ  ˆˆ   i  Cˆ 
2
 1
4 Cˆ (11)

( )( )  (A)(B)  1

Cˆ
 Or 2 (12)

 Hence proved as manifested by Eq. (12)

37
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Example
ˆ ]  i we have the uncertainty product as under:-
For [ qˆ , p

(q)( p)  12 

Where, [qˆ, pˆ ]  [qˆ, i ddqˆ ]  i [qˆ, ddqˆ ]

and
[qˆ, ddqˆ ] f (q)  q ddq f (q)  dqd q f (q)
 q q 
df
dq
df
dq
dq
dq f
  f (q)
 [qˆ, dqd ]  1

Therefore, [qˆ, pˆ ]  [qˆ, i ddqˆ ]  i [qˆ, ddqˆ ]   i  i 38

 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Example
 If the system is in eigen state of p̂ then p  0
 Then q  
2 p

 
0


 Similarly if the system is in eigen state of q̂ then q  0
 Then p  
2 q

 
0



39
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
2
 By Schwartz Inequality we have:       
 Then, equality holds iff:  c 
i.e.,   ˆ   cˆ  (i)
and  (ˆˆ  ˆˆ )   0 (ii)
 From Eq. (i) we have:-    ˆ  c  ˆ (iii)
 By using Eqs. (i) and (iii) in Eq. (ii) we get:-
c   ˆ 2   c  ˆ 2   0
 (c   c)  ˆ 2   0
 (c   c) ˆ 2  0
(iv)
 For ˆ  pˆ  pˆ we have, ˆ 2  p 2  0 i.e, system is

in eigen state of momentum then this implies that: c  40
c0
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 Therefore, c is a purely imaginary number
 Let c  i (v)
where,  is real
 For ˆ  qˆ  qˆ and ˆ  pˆ  pˆ we may have from
Eqs. (i) and (iv):
ˆ   (qˆ  qˆ )   cˆ   i ( pˆ  pˆ )  (vi)
 By operating q from left on Eq. (vi) we get:-
 d
(q  qˆ ) q   i (  pˆ ) q 
i dq
 d i
  (q)  (q  i p  q ) (q)  0
i dq  
d (q) 1
  ( q   q  i  p ) dq 
 (q)  41
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State

1 q 2
 ln( ( q))   (  q q  i p q)  c1
 2
i 1
  ( q)  c1 exp{ p q  ( q 2  2 q q)}
 2
i 1
  ( q)  c2 exp{ p q  ( q 2  q ) 2 } (vii)
 2
1
 
2
c c exp{ q
Where, 2 2
1

The value of c2 may be determined from the normalization

condition given as:

 
   

 q dq q     (q)dq (q)  1

(viii)
42
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
By substituting Eq.(vii) in Eq. (viii) we get:

1
 dq exp{( q  q ) 2 }  1
2
c2

 (viii)
For (q  q  x and dq  d x Eq. (viii) becomes as:


1 2
 dx exp{ x } 1
2
c2



 c2c2 1
2

1

1
 c2  (ix)
4 
43
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
By substituting Eq. (ix) in Eq. (vii) we get:-
1 i 1
 (q)  exp{ p q  (q2  q ) 2 } (x)
4   2

( q )      
2 2 2
Now dq ( q ) ( q q ) (xi)


By substituting Eq. (x) in Eq. (xi) we get:

1

( q  q ) 2
( q ) 2 
  dq exp{


}(q  q ) 2

1 1  
 
 2

1
 2 (xii)

Thus:-   2(q) 2 (xiii)

44
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
By substituting Eq. (xii) in Eq. (x) we get:-
1 i 1
 (q)  
exp{ p q  ( q   q ) 2
} (xiv)
4
 2(q ) 2  4(q ) 2

This Eq. (xiv) is termed as minimum uncertainty wave function

in the coordinate representation
 The repeated measurements of q for the system in this
state gives the average value q with mean square
fluctuations q
2

 The repeated measurement of p gives the average value

p with the mean square fluctuations (p) 2   2 / 4q 2
45
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 The minimum uncertainty state plays an important role in
the measurement of electromagnetic field
 The probability that the system will be found between q
and q   dq  when the measurement of q is made, is
 ( q) dq
2
given as = (xv)
 By substituting Eq. (xiv) in Eq. (xv) we get:-

dq ( q  q ) 2
 ( q) dq  exp{ 
2
} (xvi)
2 ( q ) 2 2( q ) 2

The Eq. (xvi) is a standard Gaussian Probability Distribution

function centered at q  q having standard deviation
of  q 46
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 In momentum representation we have:

 ( p)  p   p  dq q

q 



 dq p q  (q)
 (xvii)

1 ipq
p q  exp(  )
 2  (xviii)
 By substituting Eqs. (xiv) and (xviii) in Eq. (xvii) we get:-

1 1
 ( p) 
2 4
 2(q) 2

i 1
  dq exp{  ( p  p )q  ( q   q ) 2
} (xix)

 4(q ) 2

47
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 By rearranging the terms:
1 1 i
 ( p)  exp{  ( p  p ) q
2 4
 2(q) 2 

1 i
  dq exp{  ( q   q ) 2
 ( p  p )( q  q )}

4(q ) 2

 For (q  q )  y we have:
1 1 i
 ( p)  exp{  ( p  p ) q
2 4
 2( q ) 2 

1 i
  dy exp{   ( p  p ) y}
2
y

4( q ) 2



  b2
By using the integral result:
 dy exp{ay  by} 
2
exp{ }

a 4a
48
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 The result is:
1 1 i
 ( p)  4 (q ) 2 exp{  ( p  p ) q }
2 4
 2(q ) 2 
(q ) 2
 exp{  2
( p   p ) 2
}


2
For (q) 
2
 we have:
(p) 2

1 i 1
 ( p)  
exp{ ( p  p ) q  ( p   p ) 2
}
2 (p ) 2  (p ) 2

(xx)
49
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 By looking upon the Eq. (xvii) along with Eqs. (xiv), (xviii)
and (xx) we observe that:

 ( p)  p q  ( q) (xvii)
 dq


1 i 1
 ( q)  exp{ p q  ( q  q ) 2 } (xiv)
4
2 ( q ) 2  4( q ) 2

1 ipq
p q  exp(  )
2  (xviii)
1 i 1
 ( p)  exp{  ( p  p ) q  ( p  p ) 2 } (xx)
2 (p ) 2  (p ) 2

 By substituting Eq. (xviii) in Eq. (xvii) we get:


1 ipq
 ( p)   dq exp{ } ( q)
2  


(xxi)
1 ipq
 (q)   dq exp{ } ( p)
(xxii)
2  
 50
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 The Eq. (xxii) indicates that:-
 (q ) ipq
o is a superposition of plane waves exp{ }

p 2 p 2
of wavelength k 

h

 where,   h
p
h
o The wavelength  is the Debroglie wavelength
p
which is associated with a particle of mass ‘m’ and
explains the wave nature of particle in different
experiments
o  ( p) is visualized as the amplitude of each
superimposed plane wave
o These waves interfere constructively in a region  p
of momentum space to give  (q) a large value in a
2

range  q , whereas, these interfere destructively

51
outside this range to make  (q)
2
a small value
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
 Minimum Uncertainty State
 The Eq. (xxii) indicates that:-
o Therefore,  (q ) represents a wave packet and
Eq.(xxii) represents a minimum uncertainty wave packet
at a fixed time
o The use of wave packet makes it possible to localize
particle in a limited region of coordinate and momentum
space so that waves exhibit particle like characters

52
Dynamic Behavior
of
A Quantum System

53
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 A quantum system evolves in time as per Schrodinger Eq.

 t   
ˆ  t 
d
i (1)
dt
 Where, ̂ is the Hamiltonian of the system
 For a conservative system ̂ is independent of time and
Eq.(1) be solved as under:

 t      t 
d i ˆ
(2)
dt 
 By integrating both sides of Eq. (2) w.r.t. time 't ' within
the limits: t  t0 to t   we get:

54
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System

 t  ˆ  t 
 i
   dt 
t0
 t0

      t0      dt  t 
i ˆ
 t0

      t0     dt  t 
i ˆ
(3)
 t0

 By setting   t and t  t1 in Eq. (3) we get:

t
 t    t0     dt1  t1 
i ˆ
(4)
 t0

 Where , t0  t1  t
55
Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 For a series of time intervals: t0  t 2  t1 , t0  t3  t 2
or t 0  t 4  t3 and so on we have a set of Eqs. Like
Eq. (4) as under:
t
i ˆ 1
 t1    t 0     dt 2  t 2 
 t0
t
i ˆ 2
 t 2    t 0     dt3  t3 
 t0
t
i ˆ 3
 t3    t 0     dt 4  t 4 
 t0
......................
................... (5)

56
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 By successive substitution of Eqs. (5) in Eq. (4) we
get:
t  t1

 t    t0     dt1   t 0   ˆ dt 2  t 2 
i ˆ i 
 t0    
 t 0 
t 1 t

  t    t 0    t  t 0   t 0   (  )   dt1  dt 2  t 2 
i ˆ i 2 ˆ2
  t0 t0
t 1 t

  t    t 0    t  t 0   t 0   (  )   dt1  dt 2 (  t 0 
i ˆ i 2 ˆ2
 t  t1  t0 t0
t
i ˆ 2
   dt3  t3  )
 t0

 and further on:

57
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
t t 1t 2 t

  t    t0  t  t0   t0   ( i ) 2 ˆ 2  dt1 (t1  t0 )  t0   ( i )3 ˆ 3  dt1  dt 2  dt3  t3 

i ˆ
 
  t0
 t0 t0 t0

2 t t t t
1 2

  t    t0  t  t0   t0   ( i ) 2 ˆ 2 ( t1  t1t0 )  t0   ( i )3 ˆ 3  dt1  dt2  dt3  t3 

i ˆ
 
  2 t
 t0 t0 t0
0

2 2 1 2 t t t

  t    t0    t  t0   t0   ( )  {   (t  t0 )t0 }  t0   (  )   dt1  dt 2  dt3  t3 

i ˆ i 2ˆ2 t t 0 i 3ˆ3
  2 2  t0 t0 t0

2 2 t1 2t t

  t    t0  t  t0   t0   ( i ) 2 ˆ 2{t  t0  tt0 }  t0   ( i )3 ˆ 3  dt1  dt2  dt3  t3 

i ˆ
 
  2 2  t0 t0 t0

i  ˆ2 t t1 t2

  t    t0    t  t0   t0   ( ) 2 t  t0 2  t0   ( i )3 ˆ 3  dt1  dt2  dt3  t3 

i ˆ
(6)
  2  t0 t0 t0

 By continuing successive substitutions in Eq. (6) we get:

ˆ2
i 2 ˆ3
i 3
 t   {1  ( ) t  t0   ( ) t  t0   ( ) t  t0 3  ...........}  t0 
i ˆ 2

  2  3!
1 t 2 t t
n t

 ( )   dt1  dt 2  dt3 ........ dt n  t n 

i nˆn
(7)
 t0 t0 t0 t0

 For tn   the last term in Eq. (7) approaches to zero and

 t   exp{-  (t  t0 )}  t0 
i ˆ
we get: 
(8)
58
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 If we define: U (t , t0 )  exp{-
i ˆ
 (t  t0 )} Then Eq. (8) may be

given as:

 t   U (t, t 0 )  t0  (9)

 From definition of we get:

d i ˆ i ˆ
U (t , t 0 )  -  exp{-  (t  t 0 )}
dt  
d ˆ U (t , t 0 )
 i U (t , t 0 )   (10)
dt
 Similarly from the definition of U (t , t0 ) we get:

U (t0 , t0 )  Î (11)
59
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 If ̂
is be Hermitian then we may write down for U (t , t0 ) as:
 i ˆ
U t (t , t 0 )  exp   t  t0   U -1 (t , t0 ) (12)
 

 Thus Û(t , t0 ) is a unitary operator

 It may be said that the state of the quantum system at

time "t" develops completely in a casual fashion from
a state at time " t0 " in a perfect casual fashion

 It may be visualized as a continuous rotation of the state

vector in the ket vector space from an initial direction at :" t0 "
to a final direction at: "t"
60
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 The norm of  t  may be defined as:
 t   t    t 0  U t (t , t 0 )U (t , t 0 )  t 0 
  t 0   t 0  (13)

 Thus the norm of the state vector  t  does not change

with time "t" :
 Thus the magnitude of the state vector does not change
with time rather its direction varies:

61
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 Now we consider the Schrodinger Eq. in the case when
the Hamiltonian is time invariant i.e.,ˆ  ˆ (t )
t

 As ˆ (t )
 and integral 
t0
dt  ˆ (t )
 do not commute

therefore the Eq. (3) and onwards may not be defined in

this case:
 Even in this case it may be proved that Ut  is unitary:
 For this if we consider Eq. (10) is valid, then we have:
d ˆ ˆ Uˆ (t , t0 )
i U (t , t 0 )   (14)
dt
d ˆt
 i U (t , t 0 )  Uˆ t (t , t 0 )
ˆ t  Uˆ t (t , t0 )
ˆ (15)
dt
62
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 By multiplying Eq. (14) from the left with Uˆ t (t , t0 ) and Eq. (15)
from the right with Uˆ (t , t ) and by subtracting Eq. (15) from
0

Eq. (14) we get:

dÛ (t , t 0 ) ˆ Û (t , t )
iÛ t (t , t 0 )  Û t (t , t 0 ) 0
dt
dÛ t (t , t 0 ) ˆ Û (t , t 0 )
and;  i Û (t , t 0 )  Û t (t , t 0 )
dt
t
Even
iÛ (in
t
t , tthis
0 )
dÛ (
case t , tit
0 )
may
 i 
d
be Û (t , t 0 )that
proved Û (t , t 0 ) is unitary:
dt dt
 Û t (t , t 0 ) ˆ Û (t , t 0 ) - Û t (t , t 0 )ˆ Û (t , t 0 )

 i
d
dt
 
Û t (t , t 0 ) Û (t , t 0 )  0 (15)

 Thus Eq. (15) indicates that Ût (t, t0 )Û(t, t0 ) is a constant.

63
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 By considering the initial condition Uˆ (t , t )  1 we may
0 0

set the constant as:

Ût (t , t0 )Û(t , t0 )  1 (16)

 Again by multiplying Eq. (14) from the right with Û t (t , t0 ) and

Eq. (15) from the left with Û(t , t0 ) and by subtracting Eq. (15)
from Eq. (14)
dÛ (twe
, t 0 )get:t ˆ Û (t , t ) Û t (t , t )
i Û (t , t 0 )   0 0
dt
dÛ t (t , t 0 ) ˆ
and;  iÛ (t , t 0 )  Û (t , t 0 ) Û t (t , t 0 )
dt
dÛ (t , t 0 ) t dÛ t (t , t 0 )
 i Û (t , t 0 )  iÛ (t , t 0 )
dt dt
 ˆ Û (t , t ) Û t (t , t ) - Û (t , t ) Û t (t , t ) ˆ
0 0 0 0
64
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 i
d
dt

Û(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 )    
ˆ , Û(t , t ) Û t (t , t )
0 0  (16)

 By taking integration on both sides of Eq. (16) we get:

   
t t
d
i  dt  Û(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 )   dt  
ˆ , Û(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 )
t0
dt  t0

 
t
i
 U(t , t0 ) Û (t , t0 )  Û(t0 , t0 ) Û (t0 , t0 )   dt  
t t ˆ , Û(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 ) (17)
 t0

 By setting t  t1 in Eq. (17) we get:

 
t
i
U(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 )  Û(t0 , t0 ) Û t (t0 , t0 )   dt1 
ˆ , Û(t1 , t0 ) Û t (t1 , t0 ) (18)
 t0

 Where, t0  t1  t

65
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
 Similarly for other times, t 2 , t3 , t 4 and defined as:
t0  t2  t1 , t0  t3  t2 , t0  t4  t3 we have:

 
t
i 1
U(t1 , t0 ) Û (t1 , t0 )  Û(t0 , t0 ) Û (t0 , t0 )   dt 2 
t t ˆ , Û(t , t ) Û t (t , t )
2 0 2 0
 t0

 
t
i 2
U(t 2 , t0 ) Û (t 2 , t0 )  Û(t0 , t0 ) Û (t0 , t0 )   dt3 
t t ˆ , Û(t3 , t0 ) Û t (t3 , t0 )
 t0

 
t
i 3
U(t1 , t0 ) Û (t3 , t0 )  Û(t0 , t0 ) Û (t0 , t0 )   dt 4 
t t ˆ , Û(t 4 , t0 ) Û t (t 4 , t0 )
 t0
.....................................................
................................................. (19)

 By setting Û(t0 , t0 )Ût (t0 , t0 )  1 in Eq. (18) and by substituting

Eqs. (19) in it successively we get:-
66
 Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System
    
t 2 t1 t2
 i ˆ ,1    i 
1

U(t , t0 ) Û (t , t0 )  1      dt 2 
t
 2 3
dt dt ˆ, 
 ˆ , Û(t , t ) Û t (t , t )
3 0 3 0
  t 0   t0 t0

   
3 t1 t2 t3
 i
 U(t , t0 ) Û t (t , t0 )  1   
 
  
dt
t0
2 dt 3
t0
dt 4
t0
ˆ, 
 ˆ, 
ˆ , Û(t , t ) Û t (t , t )
4 0 4 0

.....................................................
................................................. (20)

 By infinite such substitutions we get the last term in Eq. (20)

approaching to zero and we get:
Û(t , t0 )Ût (t , t0 )  1 (21)

 From Eqs. (16) & (20) we deduce that: Û t (t , t0 )  Û-1 (t , t0 )

 Thus Û(t , t0 ) is unitary: 67

 Conclusion

We have talked about:-

o Measurement of observables and probability

interpretation of their measurement

o Uncertainty principle and its proof are discussed

o Minimum uncertainty state wave pact is discussed

o Dynamic Behavior of a Quantum System

68
69