circuit

Today . . .
• Speed of light
• Maxwell’s Displacement Current
• Charge conservation
• Modification of Ampere’s Law
• Modified Maxwell equations → waves!!
 Speed of Light
An aside with foreshadowing
< Galileo (1667): Light speed is infinite?
Galileo’s hilltop experiment:
Response time ~0.1 s
C > 3km / 1s > 30,000 m/s

3 km

1675: Roemer looks at eclipse of moons of Jupiter,

depending on where Earth is → v is finite (v ≈ 2.3∙108 m/s)

1860: Foucault (also Fizeau)

- change mirror rotation speed
- no signal unless mirror rotates 1/8 in ΔT
c → 2.98∙108 m/s

2004: Physics 212

→ Back to Galileo
4) Consider a capacitor that is charging (i.e., a switch has just been
closed that hooks it up to a battery). While the capacitor is
charging, there is a current between the plates.

a) True
b) False

5) In the figure we have two (imaginary) loops, 1 and 2. A wire

carrying current I passes through each of them. Shown shaded
are surfaces that are bounded by the loops (i.e., loop 1 bounds a
flat disk, while loop 2 bounds a surface like a little pouch).
For which loop is §B·dl (the line integral of the magnetic field) the
largest?
a) Loop 1 b) Loop 2 c) the same
 Maxwell’s Displacement Current
• Consider applying Ampere’s Law circuit
to the current shown in the
diagram.
• If the surface is chosen as 1,
2 or 4, the enclosed current = I

• If the surface is chosen as 3,

the enclosed current = 0! (i.e.,
there is no current between
the plates of the capacitor)

Big Idea: In order to have

   
 B  d  for surface 1 =  B  d  for surface 3
Maxwell proposed there was an extra “displacement
current” in the region between the plates, equal to the
current in the wire→
 
Modified Ampere’s law:  B  d   0 ( I  I D )
 Maxwell’s Displacement Current
• But where does the “displacement current” come from?!
Although there is no actual charge moving between the
plates, nevertheless, something is changing – the electric
field between them!
• The Electric Field E between the plates of the capacitor is
determined by the charge Q on the plate of area A:
E = Q/(A0) → Q = E A0
• Because there is current flowing through the wire, there must
be a change in the charge on the plates:
dQ d d ( EA) d
I   0 EA   0  0 E  ID Recall def’n of flux:
dt dt dt dt 1
 E   E  dS  Q
d E 0
ID  0
dt

d E
Modified Ampere’s Law: ˜ Bd   0 I   0 0 1
dt
 Points A and B lie inside a
capacitor. At time t = 0 the switch
is closed.

7) After the switch is closed, there will be a magnetic field at point

A which is proportional to the current in the circuit.
a) True
b) False
 Lecture 21, ACT 1
• Suppose that at time t the currents flowing ro
into capacitors CI and CII = 4CI are identical,
and that CII has twice the radius (and 4 times I
the area) of CI , as shown. CI
1A – Compare the net displacement current for
the two cases. 2ro
(a) ID,I < ID,II (b) ID,I = ID,II (c) ID,I > ID,II ro

I
1B • Compare the magnetic fields at a radial
distance r0 from the axes of CI and CII. CII

(a) BI(r0) < BII(r0) (b) BI(r0)= BII(r0) (c) BI(r0) > BII(r0)
 Lecture 21, ACT 1
• Suppose that at time t the currents flowing ro
into capacitors CI and CII = 4CI are identical,
and that CII has twice the radius (and 4 times I
the area) of CI , as shown. CI
1A – Compare the net displacement current for
the two cases. 2ro
(a) ID,I < ID,II (b) ID,I = ID,II (c) ID,I > ID,II ro

CII
• Although there is no actual current flowing between the capacitor
plates, the displacement is always equal to the real current.
• Therefore, since the two capacitors have the same real current, they
must have the same total displacement current.
 Lecture 21, ACT 1
• Suppose that at time t the currents flowing ro
into capacitors CI and CII = 4CI are identical,
and that CII has twice the radius (and 4 times I
the area) of CI , as shown. CI
1B • Compare the magnetic fields at a radial
distance r0 from the axes of CI and CII. 2ro

(a) BI(r0) < BII(r0) ro

I
(b) BI(r0)= BII(r0)
CII
(c) BI(r0) > BII(r0)
• You could solve this using the expression for B in terms of the flux
of E. However, it is simpler to answer by pretending that the
displacement current were uniformly distributed over the entire
area of the capacitor, and simply using B = 0 Ienclosed/2 p r0 .
• For CI the entire displacement current is enclosed (by an imaginary
Amperean loop; for CII only 1/4 of the total displacement current is
enclosed. Therefore, BII(r0) = BI(r0)/4.
 Points A and B lie inside a
capacitor. At time t = 0 the switch
is closed.

8) Compare the magnitudes of the magnetic fields at points A and B:

a) BA < BB
b) BA = BB
c) BA > BB
Apply Ampere’s Law:
  0 d E
 B  d    0 I   0  0 dt
B*2pr 00d/dt(pr2(Q/A0))

B*2pr = 0 * pr2/A) * dQ/dt B = ½ 0 r I/A

Right:
• There will be a magnetic field proportional to the change in electric flux on the
plates, which is proportional to the current in this circuit. Since there is greater
flux enclosed at a distance B, which is more off center from the center of the
plates than A, it will have a greater change in electric flux, thus a greater B field.

Wrong:
• B field is due to moving charges. Theoretically, there are no charges moving
through the gap between the capacitor plates, only the potential difference.
• The magnetic fields at A and B would be equal because the charge across the
capacitor would be evenly distributed across the plates of the capacitor
 On to Waves!!
• Note the symmetry now of Maxwell’s Equations in free space,
meaning when no charges or currents are present

˜ E  dS  0 ˜ B  dS  0
d B d E
˜ Ed   ˜ B  d   0 0
dt dt
• Combining these equations (see Appendix A) leads to
wave equations for E and B, e.g.,
 2 Ex  2 Ex
 0 0
z 2
 t2
• Do you remember the wave equation???
 2h 1  2h h is the variable that is changing
 2 2 in space (x) and time (t). v is the
x v t
2
velocity of the wave.
 Review of Waves from Physics 111
 h 1 h
2 2
• The one-dimensional wave equation:
 2 2
has a general solution of the form: x v t
2

h( x, t )  h1 ( x  vt)  h2 ( x  vt)
where h1 represents a wave traveling in the +x direction and h2
represents a wave traveling in the -x direction.
• A specific solution for harmonic waves traveling in the +x
direction is:
h 
  
h x, t  A cos kx  t  A

2p 2p x
k   2p f 
 T A = amplitude
 = wavelength

v  f  f = frequency
k v = speed
k = wave number
 Movies from 111
Transverse Wave:
• Note how the wave pattern
definitely moves to the right.
• However any particular point
(look at the blue one) just
moves transversely (i.e., up
and down) to the direction of
the wave.

Wave Velocity:
• The wave velocity is
defined as the wavelength
divided by the time it takes a
wavelength (green) to pass
by a fixed point (blue).
 Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves
• We derived the wave equation for Ex  2 Ex  2 Ex
(Maxwell did it first, in ~1865!):   0 0
 z 2
 t2
• Comparing to the general wave equation:  2h 1  2h
 2
x 2
v  t2
we have the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space:
1
v  3.00 108 m / s  c
0 0
• This value is essentially identical to the speed of light
measured by Foucault in 1860!
– Maxwell identified light as an electromagnetic wave.
 E & B in Electromagnetic Wave
• Plane Harmonic Wave:
Ex  E0 sin( kz  t )
where   kc
By  B0 sin( kz  t )

z
y 3

 By is in phase with Ex  B0  E0 / c
The direction of propagation ŝ is given by the cross product
sˆ  eˆ  bˆ
 
where eˆ, bˆ are the unit vectors in the (E,B) directions.
Nothing special about (Ex, By); e.g., could have (Ey, -Bx)
Note cyclical relation: eˆ  bˆ  sˆ bˆ  sˆ  eˆ sˆ  eˆ  bˆ
 Lecture 21, ACT 3
• Suppose the electric field in an e-m wave is given by:
E   yˆ E0 cos(kz  t )
3A In what direction is this wave traveling ?
(a) + z direction (b) - z direction

3B Which of the following expressions describes the magnetic field

associated with this wave?
(a) Bx = -(Eo/c) cos(kz + t)
(b) Bx = +(Eo/c) cos(kz - t)
(c) Bx = +(Eo/c) sin(kz - t)
 Lecture 21, ACT 3
• Suppose the electric field in an e-m wave is given by:
E   yˆ E0 cos(kz  t )
3A – In what direction is this wave traveling ?
(a) + z direction (b) - z direction

• To determine the direction, set phase = 0:  kz  t  0 z t
• Therefore wave moves in + z direction! k
• Another way: Relative signs opposite means + direction
 Lecture 21, ACT 3
• Suppose the electric field in an e-m wave is given by:
E   yˆ E0 cos(kz  t )
3A – In what direction is this wave traveling ?
(a) + z direction (b) - z direction

3B • Which of the following expressions describes the magnetic

field associated with this wave?
(a) Bx = -(Eo/c) cos(kz + t)
(b) Bx = +(Eo/c) cos(kz - t) )
(c) Bx = +(Eo/c) sin(kz - t)
• B is in phase with E and has direction determined from: bˆ  sˆ  eˆ
• At t=0, z=0, Ey = -Eo
• Therefore at t=0, z=0, bˆ  sˆ  eˆ  kˆ  ( ˆj )  iˆ
ˆ E0
B  i cos(kz   t )
c
10) An electromagnetic wave is travelling along the x-axis, with
its electric field oscillating along the y-axis. In what direction
does the magnetic field oscillate?

a) along the x-axis

b) along the z-axis
c) along the y-axis
Note: the direction of propagation ŝ is given by the cross product
sˆ  eˆ  bˆ
 
where eˆ, bˆ are the unit vectors in the (E,B) directions.
In this case, direction of ŝ is x and direction of ê is y
xˆ  yˆ  zˆ

The fields must be perpendicular to each other

and to the direction of propagation.
Properties of electromagnetic waves (e.g., light)

Speed: in vacuum, always 3•108 m/s, no matter how fast the

source is moving (there is no “aether”!). In material, the
speed can be reduced, usually only by ~1.5, but in 1999 to
17 m/s!

Direction: The wave described by cos(kx-t) is traveling in

the xˆ direction. This is a “plane” wave—extends
infinitely in ŷ and ẑ .

In reality, light is often somewhat localized transversely

(e.g., a laser) or spreading in a spherical wave (e.g., a star).
A plane wave can often be a good approximation (e.g., the
wavefronts hitting us from the sun are nearly flat).
 Plane Waves

• For any given value of z, the magnitude of

the electric field is uniform everywhere in
the x-y plane with that z value.

y
Shown is an EM wave at an instant
in time. Points A, B, and C lie in
the same x-y plane.

3) Compare the magnitudes of the electric field at points A and B.

a) Ea < Eb
b) Ea = Eb
c) Ea > Eb

4) Compare the magnitudes of the electric field at points A and C.

a) Ea < Ec
b) Ea = Ec
c) Ea > Ec
What you said …
x

Magnitude of field is determined

only by value of z (and t) !!!
y

Right:
• for any given value of z, the magnitude of the electric field is uniform
everywhere in the x-y plane with that z value

Wrong:
• The point A is where the electric field and magnetic field are zero. So the
points c and b have a greater field.
 Summary
• Repaired Ampere’s Law   d E
Maxwell’s Displacement Current
 B  d   0 I   0 0 dt
• Combined Faraday’s Law and Ampere’s Law
– time varying B-field induces E-field x

– time varying E-field induces B-field

z

 2 Ex  2 Ex y

  o o
z  t2
eˆ  bˆ  sˆ
2

• Electromagnetic waves that travel at c = 3 x 108 m/s

 Appendix: 4-step Plane Wave Derivation
Step 1 Assume we have a plane wave propagating in z (i.e., E, B
not functions of x or y)
Example: Ex  E0 sin( kz  t ) does this

Step 2 Apply Faraday’s Law to infinitesimal loop in x-z plane

d B
˜ Ed   x
Ex
dt Ex
x

 By z1
 Ex  z2   Ex  z1   x  x z  t
z2 z
By Z
y
 Ex  By  Ex  By
z x  x z 
 z t z t
 4-step Plane Wave Derivation
Step 3 Apply Ampere’s Law to an infinitesimal loop in the y-z
plane:
d E x Ex
˜ B  d   0 0
dt Z
z1 z2
z
 Ex
 By  z1   By  z2   y  o 0 y z t y
By By y

 By  Ex  By  Ex
 z y   0 0 y z    0 0
 z t  z t
Step 4 Combine results from steps 2 and 3 to eliminate By
 2 By  2 Ex
   0 0  2
 2

!!
t z t E Ex
 
2
x

 z2  t2
0 0

Now use  E  B  2
By  2
Ex

y
x

M. Eqn:  z  t  z t  z2
 How is B related to E?
• We derived the wave eqn for Ex:  Ex  1  Ex
2 2

 z 2 c2  t 2

• We could have also derived for By:  2

B 1  2
By
y
 2
z 2
c  t2

• How are Ex and By related in phase and magnitude?

– Consider the harmonic solution: Ex  E0 sin( kz  t )

where   kc
 By  Ex
(Result from step 2)   kE0 cos(kz   t )
t z
k
B y  kE0  cos( kz  t )dt  E0 sin( kz  t )

• By is in phase with Ex
• B0 = E0 / c