Measurement in Thermofluidic

HVAC System
| Stress & Force Measurement |
(26th November 2019)

Presenter:
Mohammad Fakhrulrezza Bin Suhaimi
M2018737
(Energy Transport Phenomena Lab.)
 | Background History|
• The basic type of force that we can find
around us is the force of gravity.
• Sir Isaac Newton was the first to fully
understand the rule of force gravity when an
apple fall on the ground and this give him
the foundation for the newton’s law of
motion.
Mass balance schematic diagram Steelyard scale for trading
• One of the basic type of force sensor is a gravitational device such
as the mass balance device.
• These device uses gravity as the relative sensor to determine the
force applied and the mass as the reference point.
• The force is determine when the lever system is equilibrium.
• To measure the force, F at a distance L from the pivot, a mass m
at a distance of l from pivot.
The equation for equilibrium system is: 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔𝑙.
 | Introduction|
Force vs Stress

• According to Newton’s Second law, the net force of an object is equal to the mass of the objects times the
gravitational acceleration 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 .
𝐹
• Stress 𝜎 = can be defined as Internal resistive force that generated when external force is applied
𝐴

Force graphical representation

Stress graphical representation
 | Force Measurement Classification|
Gravitational Mechanical Elastic force device Electric sensor

• Use balance method • The change in pressure • Use the change in • The change in sensor
that utilize gravity to as the indicator. deformation of the resistance when force is
measure • Pneumatic and object and change in applied to the sensor.
hydraulic load cell resistance of the sensor • Force sensitive
connected to the object resistor
measure the force
applied.
• Strain gage
• Beam type
• Ring type
• Change in the spring • Electro-mechanical
length. • Piezoelectric
• Hooke’s Law
 | Mechanical Method - Pressure Change |
Hydraulic Load Cell Pneumatic Load Cell

• Pneumatic load cell uses pressured air as the transmitting

fluid.
• In this device, the hydraulic pressure is used to
• Working principle of pneumatic load cell :
indicate Force, F that is being applied to the
• When force is applied, the diaphragm deforms and the
diaphragm.
gap between the extension of diaphragm and nozzle
• The pressure is developed through the transmitting
changes.
fluid (oil) when force is applied and measured using
• As the force increases, the gap reduces and this will
Bourdon gauge
increase the pressure in the chamber, (P2).
• The increase in pressure produce a force that tends to
return the diaphragm to its initial position.
• For any force (F) applied, the system attains equilibrium
and pressure, P2 gives an indication of the force (F).
 | Elastic Force– Hooke’s Law|
• A hook, spring or hanging scale operates • Currently, most of the weight scale are digitalized where
on a principle based on Hooke’s Law. they use strain gage based analogue load cells with built
• It states that "the force exerted on a in electronics to convert the analogue output into a
spring is directly proportional to the digital output
distance it moves as a result of the force.
• This is represented in the form of the
equation, F = kX,
• Where F is the amount of force
applied to the spring, X is the
distance traveled, and k is the
constant stiffness of the particular
spring.
 | Elastic Force - Deformation|
Strain Load Cell
• Force measurement through
deformation
• The basis for force measurement
results from the physical
behaviour of a body under
external forces. Uniaxial compression Wheatstone bridge circuit
• Using a mechanical arrangement
the force is being sense through a
strain gage.
• The strain gage converts the
deformation into electric signals.
• This type of arrangement is
known as Strain Gage Load Cell
where it usually have four strain
gages in Wheatstone bridge
Configuration Stress graphical representation Strain gage
 | Strain Gage Load Cell|
• Strain gages use a length of gage wire to produce the desired resistance in the form of a flat coil.
• This coil is then cemented (bonded) between two thin insulating sheets of paper or plastic

Configuration of metal foil resistance strain gages

Single element Two element Three element Bonded strain gage

 | Beam Type Load Cell|
• A simple cantilever beam with four strain gages, two on the top surface and two
on the bottom surface (all oriented along the axis of the beam) is used as the
elastic member (sensor) for the load cell.
• The gages are wired into a Wheatstone bridge as shown in. The load P produces
a moment M = Px at the gage location (x) that results in the following strains:

Strain: Beam type load cell

Resistance change:

The output voltage:

Where, Sg is the gage factor or calibration constant for the gage.

Gage positions in
Wheatstone bridge
| Beam Type Load Cell|

Beam type load cell

Gage positions in
Wheatstone bridge
 | Ring Type Load Cell|
Proven Ring with gage sensors

(a) Elastic element with (b) Gage positions in the

strain-gage sensor. Wheatstone bridge
 | Ring Type Load Cell|
Proven Ring
• A ring used for calibrating tensile testing
machines. It works on the principle of LVDT
(linear variable differential transformer)
which senses the displacement caused by
the force resulting in a proportional voltage.
• When forces are applied at point A and B,
the diameter of ring changes .
• The resulting deflection of the ring is
measured by LVDT which converts the ring
deflection or displacement in to voltage
signal.
• For mechanical type, a dial gauge is used for
detecting the force being applied.
• The dial gauge is mechanical
 | Electric Sensor - Piezoelectric Method|
• A piezoelectric material exhibits a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect .
• This effect states that when asymmetrical, elastic crystals are deformed by a force, an
electrical potential will be developed within the distorted crystal lattice.
• Elements exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are sometimes known as electro
restrictive elements.
• The force F causes a thickness variation meters of the crystal is given by:
Piezoelectric effect
𝑎𝐸𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠
𝐹= ∆𝑡
𝑡

• The voltage is given by the equation:

𝑔𝑡
𝐸𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐹
𝑎

Where, Young’s Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 ; Area of crystal, a ;

Thickness of crystal, t; g is the voltage sensitivity
Piezoelectric application
 | Electric Sensor - Force Sensitive Resistor|
• Force sensing resistors (FSRs) utilize polymer thick-film devices exhibit
decreasing resistance with the increase of an applied force.
• A force sensing resistor is made up of two parts:
• A resistive material applied to a film.
• A set of digitating contacts applied to another film.
• When a force is applied to this sensor, a better connection is made
between the contacts; hence, the conductivity is increased.
Diagram of a typical force
• This behaviour is useful when one is designing switches using force sensing resistor (FSR).
sensing resistors.

Resistance as a function of force for a

typical force sensing resistor.
| Force Sensitive Resistor|

Diagram of a typical force

sensing resistor (FSR).

Resistance as a function of force for a

typical force sensing resistor.
| Thank You For Your Attention|