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 The Gene Pool

•Members of a species
can interbreed &
produce fertile
offspring
• Species have a shared
gene pool
• Gene pool – all of the
alleles of all individuals
in a population

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 The Gene Pool
•Different species
do NOT exchange
genes by
interbreeding
• Different species
that interbreed
often produce
sterile or less viable
offspring e.g. Mule

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 Populations
•A group of the
same species living
in an area
• No two individuals
are exactly alike
(variations)
• More Fit
individuals survive &
pass on their traits

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 Speciation
•Formation of new
species
•One species may
split into 2 or more
species
• A species may
evolve into a new
species
• Requires very long
periods of time

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 Hardy-Weinberg Principle

1.The Hardy–Weinberg principle, also known

as the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium,
model,theorem, or law, states that allele and
genotype frequencies in a population will
remain constant from generation to generation
in the absence of other evolutionary
influences.

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The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• Used to describe a non-evolving

population.
• Shuffling of alleles by meiosis and
random fertilization have no effect
on the overall gene pool.
• Natural populations are NOT
expected to actually be in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium.

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The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg

equilibrium usually results in
evolution
• Understanding a non-evolving
population, helps us to understand
how evolution occurs

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 5 Assumptions of the H-W Principle
1.Large population size
- small populations have fluctuations in allele
frequencies.
2.No migration
- immigrants can change the frequency of an
allele by bringing in new alleles to a
population.
3.No net mutations
- if alleles change from one to another, this
will change the frequency of those alleles

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5 Assumptions of the H-W Principle
3.Random mating
- if certain traits are more desirable,
then individuals with those traits will be
selected and this will not allow for random
mixing of alleles.
4.No natural selection
- if some individuals survive and reproduce
at a higher rate than others, then their
offspring will carry those genes and the
frequency will change for the next
generation.

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 Microevolution
of Species
evolutionary change within a
species or small group of
organisms, especially over a
short period.

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 Causes of Microevolution

• Genetic Drift
- the change in the gene pool of a small

• Natural Selection
population due to chance

- success in reproduction based on heritable

traits results in selected alleles being passed to
relatively more offspring (Darwinian inheritance)

• Gene Flow
- Cause ADAPTATION of Populations

-is genetic exchange due to the migration of

fertile individuals or gametes between
populations
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 Causes of Microevolution

• Mutation
- a change in an organism’s DNA
- Mutations can be transmitted in gametes to
offspring
• Non-random mating
- Mates are chosen on the basis of the best
traits

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Genetic Drift

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Factors that Cause Genetic Drift
• Bottleneck Effect
- a drastic reduction in population (volcanoes,
earthquakes, landslides …)
- Reduced genetic variation
- Smaller population may not be able to adapt to new
selection pressures
• Founder Effect
- occurs when a new colony is started by a few
members of the original population
- Reduced genetic variation
- May lead to speciation
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 Loss of Genetic Variation

• Cheetahs have little genetic variation in

their gene pool
• This can probably be attributed to a
population bottleneck they experienced
around 10,000 years ago, barely
avoiding extinction at the end of the
last ice age

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Founder’s Effect

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Modes of Natural
Selection
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 Modes of Natural Selection
• Directional Selection
- Favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic
range
- Most common during times of environmental change
or when moving to new habitats

• Disruptive selection
- Favors extreme over intermediate phenotypes
- Occurs when environmental change favors an
extreme phenotype

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Directional
Selection

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Disruptive Selection

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 Modes of Natural Selection

• Stabilizing Selection
- Favors intermediate over extreme phenotypes
- Reduces variation and maintains the cureent
average
- Example: Human birth weight

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Variations in
Populations
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 Geographic Variations
• Variation in a species
due to climate or
another geographical
condition
• Populations live in
different locations
• Example: Finches of
Galapagos Islands &
South America

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 Heterozygote Advantage
• Favors heterozygotes (Aa)
• Maintains both alleles (A,a) instead of
removing less successful alleles from a
population
• Sickle cell anemia
> Homozygotes exhibit severe anemia, have
abnormal blood cell shape, and usually die
before reproductive age.
> Heterozygotes are less susceptible to
malaria

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 Other Sources of Variation
• Mutations
- In stable environments, mutations often result in
little or no benefit to an organism, or are often
harmful
- Mutations are more beneficial (rare) in changing
environments (Example: HIV resistance to
antiviral drugs)
• Genetic Recombination
- source of most genetic differences between
individuals in a population
• Co-evolution
-Often occurs between parasite & host and
flowers & their pollinators
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Coevolution

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