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Energy Conversion 18
Energy Conversion 18
(Course 25741)
CHAPTER SEVEN
INDUCTION MOTORS … (Maximum Torque…)
INDUCTION MOTOR
MAXIMUM TORQUE
• maximum power transfer occurs when:
R2/s=√RTH^2 + (XTH+X2)^2 (1)
solving (1) for slip
smax=R2 / √RTH^2 + (XTH+X2)^2 (2)
Note: slip of rotor (at maximum torque) ~ R2 rotor
resistance
applying this value of slip to torque equation
2
3VTH
max
2 sync RTH X TH X 2
2 2
R
TH
INDUCTION MOTOR
MAXIMUM TORQUE
• This maximum torque ~ VTH ^2 (or square of
supply voltage)
& inversely related to stator Impedances & rotor
reactance
• The smaller a machine’s reactance the larger
its maximum torque
• Note: smax ~ R2 , however maximum torque is
independent of R2
• Torque-speed characteristic of a wound-rotor
induction motor shown if figure next
INDUCTION MOTOR
MAXIMUM TORQUE
• Effect of varying rotor resistance on T-ω of
wound rotor
INDUCTION MOTOR
MAXIMUM TORQUE
• as the value of external resistor connected to rotor
circuit of a wound rotor through slip rings is increased
the pullout speed decreased, however the maximum
torque remains constant
• Advantage can be taken from this characteristic of
wound-rotor induction motors to start very heavy loads
• If a resistance inserted into rotor circuit, Tmax can be
adjusted to at starting conditions
• And while load is turning, extra resistance can
be removed from circuit, & Tmax move up to near
synchronous speed for regular operation
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(1)
• A 2 pole, 50 Hz induction motor supplies 15kW
to a load at a speed of 2950 r/min.
• What is the motor’s slip?
• What is the induced torque in the motor in Nm
under these conditions?
• What will the operating speed of the motor be if
its torque is doubled?
• How much power will be supplied by the motor
when the torque is doubled?
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(1)-SOLUTION
(a) nsync= 120fe/p= 120x50/2=3000 r/min
s= 3000-2950/3000=0.0167 or 1.67%
(b) Tind=Pconv/ωm=15 / (2950)(2πx1/60)=48.6 N.m.
(c) as shown, in low slip region, torque-speed is
linear & induced torque ~ s doubling Tind
slip would be 3.33 %
nm=(1-s)nsync =(1-0.0333)(3000)=2900 r/min
(d) Pconv=Tind ωm=97.2 x 2900 x 2πx1/60=29.5 kW
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(2)
• A 460V, 25hp, 60Hz, 4-pole, Y-connected wound rotor
induction motor has the following impedances in ohms
per-phase referred to the stator circuit:
• R1 = 0.641 Ω R2 = 0.332 Ω
• X1 = 1.106 Ω X2 = 0.464 Ω Xm = 26.3 Ω
– What is the max torque of this motor? At what speed and
slip does it occur?
– What is the starting torque?
– When the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed at
which the max torque now occurs? What is the new starting
torque?
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(2)-SOLUTION
Xm
Thevenin Voltage : V V R X X =
TH
2 2
1 1 m
=(0.641)(26.3/[1.106+26.3])^2=0.59 Ω
XTH≈X1=1.106 Ω
(a) smax= R2 / √RTH^2 + (XTH+X2)^2
=0.332/√(0.59)^2+(1.106+0.464)^2=0.198
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(2)-SOLUTION
• This corresponds to a mechanical speed of :
nm=(1-s)nsync=(1-0.198)(1800)=1444 r/min
• the torque at this speed :
2
3VTH
max
2 sync R X TH X2
TH
2 2
R
TH
= 3(255.2)^2 /
{2x188.5x[0.59+√0.59^2+(1.106+0.464)^2]}
=229 N.m.
INDUCTION MOTOR
EXAMPLE(2)-SOLUTION
(b) starting torque of motor found by s=1
2
3VTH R2
start
sync[( RTH R2 ) ( X TH X 2 ) ]
2 2
= 3x255.2^2 x 0.332 /
{188.5x[(0.59+0.332)^2+(1.106+0.464)^2]}=104 N.m.
(c) rotor resistance is doubled, s at Tmax doubles
smax=0.396 , and the speed at Tmax is:
nm=(1-s)nsync=(1-0.396)(1800)=1087 r/min
Maximum torque is still:
Tmax=229 N.m. and starting torque is :
Tstart=3(255.2)(0.664) /
{(188.5)[(0.59+0.664)^2+(1.106+0.464)^2]} =170 N.m.
INDUCTION MOTOR
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED
Discussion:
INDUCTION MOTOR
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED
• Desired Motor Characteristic
• Should behave: like the high-resistance wound-
rotor curve; at high slips, & like the low-
resistance wound-rotor curve at low slips
INDUCTION MOTOR
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED
Control of Motor Characteristics by Cage Rotor
Design:
• Leakage reactance X2 represents the referred form of
the rotor’s leakage reactance (reactance due to the
rotor’s flux lines that do not couple with the stator
windings.)
• Generally, the farther away the rotor bar is from the
stator, the greater its X2 , since a smaller percentage
of the bar’s flux will reach the stator.
• Thus, if the bars of a cage rotor are placed near the
surface of the rotor, they will have small leakage flux
and X2 will be small.
INDUCTION MOTOR
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED
Laminations from typical cage induction motor, cross section of the rotor
bars:
S start
IL
3VT
In example: for code letter A; factor of kVA/hp is
between 0-3.15 (not include lower bound of next
higher class)
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• EXAMPLE: what is starting current of a 15 hp, 208 V,
code letter F, 3 phase induction motor?
• Maximum kVA / hp is 5.6 max. starting kVA of this
motor is Sstart=15 x 5.6 = 84 kVA
the starting current is thus:
IL=Sstart / [√3 VT] = 84 / [√3 x 208] = 233 A
• Starting current may be reduced by a starting circuit:
a- inductor banks
b- resistor banks
c-reduce motor’s terminal voltage by autotransformer
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Autotransformer
starter:
• During starting 1 & 3
closed, when motor is
nearly up to speed; those
contacts opened & 2
closed
• Note: as starting current
reduced proportional to
decrease in voltage,
starting torque decreased
as square of applied
voltage, therefore just a
certain reduction possible
if motor is to start with a
shaft load attached
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• A typical full-voltage (across-the-line) motor
magnetic starter circuit
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Start button pressed, rely coil M energized, &
N.O. contacts M1,M2,M3 close
• Therefore power supplied to motor & motor
starts
• Contacts M4 also close which short out starting
switch, allowing operator to release it (start
button) without removing power from M relay
• When stop button pressed, M relay de-
energized, & M contacts open, stopping motor
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• A magnetic motor starter circuit has several built-in
protective features:
1- short-circuit protection
2- overload protection
3- under-voltage protection
• Short-circuit protection provided by fuses F1,F2,F3
• If sudden sh. cct. Develops within motor causes a
current (many times greater than rated current) flow;
these fuses blow disconnecting motor from supply
(however, sh. cct. by a high resistance or excessive
motor loads will not be cleared by fuses)
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Overload protection for motor is provided “OL” relays
which consists of 2 parts: an over load heater, and
overload contacts
• when an induction motor overloaded, it is eventually
damaged by excessive heating caused by high
currents
• However this damage takes time & motor will not be
hurt by brief periods of high current (such as starting
current)
• Undervoltage protection is also provided by controller
If voltage applied to motor falls too much, voltage
applied to M relay also fall, & relay will de-energize
The M contacts open, removing power from motor
terminals
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• 3 step resistive starter
• Similar to previous,
except that there are
additional components
present to control
Removal of starting
resistors
• Relays 1TD, 2TD, & 3
TD are time-delay
relay
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Start button is pushed in this circuit, M relay energizes
and power is applied to motor as before
• Since 1TD, 2TD, & 3TD contacts are all open the full
starting resistor in series with motor, reducing the
starting current
• When M contacts close, notice that 1 TD relay is
energized, however there is a finite delay before 1TD
contacts close, cutting out part of starting resistance &
simultaneously energizing 2TD relay
• After another delay, 2TD contacts close, cutting out
second part of resistor & energizing 3TD relay
• Finally 3TD contacts close, & entire starting resistor is
out of circuit
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Induction motors are not good machines for
applications requiring considerable speed control.
• The normal operating range of a typical induction
motor is confined to less than 5% slip, and the speed
variation is more or less proportional to the load
• Since PRCL = s PAG , if slip is made higher, rotor
copper losses will be high as well
• There are basically 2 general methods to control
induction motor’s speed:
- Varying synchronous speed
- Varying slip
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• nsync= 120 fe / p
• so the only ways to change nsync is (1) changing
electrical frequency (2) changing number of
poles
• slip control can be accomplished, either by
varying rotor resistance, or terminal voltage of
motor
• Speed Control by Pole Changing
• Two major approaches:
1- method of consequent poles
2- multiple stator windings
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
1- method of consequent
poles
relies on the fact that
number of poles in stator
windings can easily
changed by a factor of 2:1,
with simple changes in coil
connections
- a 2-pole stator winding for
pole changing. Very small
rotor pitch
• In next figure for windings
of phase “a” of a 2 pole
stator, method is illustrated
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• A view of one phase of
a pole changing
winding
• In fig(a) , current flow
in phase a, causes
magnetic field leave
stator in upper phase
group (N) & enters
stator in lower phase
group (S), producing 2
stator magnetic poles
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Now, if direction of current flow in lower phase group reversed,
magnetic field leave stator in both upper phase group, & lower
phase group, each will be a North pole while flux in machine
must return to stator between two phase groups, producing a
pair of consequent south magnetic poles (twice as many as
before)
• Rotor in such a motor is of cage design, and a cage rotor
always has as many poles as there are in stator
• when motor reconnected from 2 pole to 4 pole , resulting
maximum torque is the same (for :constant-torque connection)
half its previous value (for: square-law-torque connection used
for fans, etc.), depending on how the stator windings are
rearranged
• Next figure, shows possible stator connections & their effect on
torque-speed
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Possible connections of stator coils in a pole-changing
motor, together with resulting torque-speed
characteristics:
(a) constant-torque connection : power capabilities
remain constant in both high & low speed connections
(b) constant hp connection: power capabilities of
motor remain approximately constant in both high-
speed & low-speed connections
(c) Fan torque connection: torque capabilities of motor
change with speed in same manner as fan-type loads
Shown in next figure
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
Figure of possible connections
of stator coils in a pole changing
motor
(a) constant-torque Connection:
torque capabilities of motor
remain approximately
constant in both high-speed
& low-speed connection
(b) Constant-hp connection:
power capabilities of motor
remain approximately
constant in …
(c) Fan torque connection:
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Major Disadvantage of consequent-pole method of changing
speed: speeds must be in ratio of 2:1
• traditional method to overcome the limitation: employ multiple
stator windings with different numbers of poles & to energize
only set at a time
Example: a motor may wound with 4 pole & a set of 6 pole
stator windings, then its sync. Speed on a 60 Hz system could
be switched from 1800 to 1200 r/min simply by supplying power
to other set of windings
• however multiple stator windings increase expense of motor &
used only it is absolutely necessary
• Combining method of consequent poles with multiple stator
windings a 4 –speed motor can be developed
Example: with separate 4 & 6 pole windings, it is possible to
produce a 60 Hz motor capable of running at 600, 900, 1200,
and 1800 r/min
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Speed Control by Changing Line
Frequency
• Changing the electrical frequency will change
the synchronous speed of the machine
• Changing the electrical frequency would also
require an adjustment to the terminal voltage
in order to maintain the same amount of flux
level in the machine core. If not the machine
will experience
(a) Core saturation (non linearity effects)
(b) Excessive magnetization current
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Varying frequency with or without adjustment to the terminal
voltage may give 2 different effects :
(a) Vary frequency, stator voltage adjusted – generally vary
speed and maintain operating torque
(b) Vary Frequency, stator voltage maintained – able to
achieve higher speeds but a reduction of torque as speed is
increased
• There may also be instances where both characteristics are
needed in the motor operation; hence it may be combined to
give both effects
• With the arrival of solid-state devices/power electronics, line
frequency change is easy to achieved and it is more flexible
for a variety of machines and application
• Can be employed for control of speed over a range from a
little as 5% of base speed up to about twice base speed
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Running below base speed, the terminal voltage should be
reduced linearly with decreasing stator frequency
• This process called derating, failing to do that cause saturation
and excessive magnetization current (if fe decreased by 10% &
voltage remain constant flux increase by 10% and cause
increase in magnetization current)
• When voltage applied varied linearly with frequency below base
speed, flux remain approximately constant, & maximum torque
remain fairly high, therefore maximum power rating of motor
must be decreased linearly with frequency to protect stator cct.
From overheating
• Power supplied to : √3 VLIL cosθ should be decreased if
terminal voltage decreased
• Figures (7-42 )
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Variable-frequency speed
control
(a) family of torque-speed
characteristic curves for speed
below base speed (assuming line
voltage derated linearly with
frequency
(b) Family of torque-speed
characteristic curves for speeds
above base speed, assuming line
voltage held constant
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Speed control by changing Line Voltage
• Torque developed by induction motor is
proportional to square of applied voltage
• Varying the terminal voltage will vary the
operating speed but with also a variation of
operating torque
• In terms of the range of speed variations, it is
not significant hence this method is only
suitable for small motors only
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Variable-line-voltage speed control
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Speed control by changing rotor resistance
• In wound rotor, it is possible to change the
torque-speed curve by inserting extra
resistances into rotor cct.
• However, inserting extra resistances into rotor
cct. seriously reduces efficiency
• Such a method of speed control normally used
for short periods, to avoid low efficiency
INDUCTION MOTOR
CCT MODEL PAR. MEAURSEMENT
• Determining Circuit Model Parameters
• R1,R2,X1,X2 and XM should be determined
• Tests (O.C. & S.C.) performed under precisely
controlled conditions
Since resistances vary with Temperature & rotor
resistance also vary with rotor frequency
• Exact details described in IEEE standards 112
• Although details of tests very complicated, concepts
behind them straightforward & will be explained here
INDUCTION MOTOR
CCT MODEL PAR. MEAURSEMENT
• No Load Test
• Measures rotational
losses & provides
information about
magnetization
current
• Test cct. shown in
(a), motor allowed
to spin freely
• Wattmeters, a
voltmeter and 3
ammeters
INDUCTION MOTOR
CCT MODEL PAR. MEAURSEMENT
• In this test, only load mechanical losses, & slip
very small (as 0.001 or less)
• Equivalent cct. shown in figure (b)
• Resistance corresponding to power conversion
is R2(1-s)/s much larger than R2 & much larger
than X2 so eq. cct. Reduces to last in (b)
• output resistor in parallel with magnetization
reactance XM & core losses RC
• Input power measured by meters equal losses,
while rotor copper losses negligible (I2
extremely small), PSL=3I1^2 R1
INDUCTION MOTOR
CCT MODEL PAR. MEAURSEMENT
• Pin=PSCL+Pcore+PF&W+Pmisc=3 I1^2 R1 + Prot
• So eq. cct. In this condition contains RC and R2(1-s)/s
in parallel with XM
• While current to provide magnetic field is large due to
high reluctance of air gap & so XM would be much
smaller than resistance in parallel with it
• Overall P.F. very small
• with large lagging current :
|Zeq|=Vφ/I1,nl ≈ X1+XM
if X1 known by another fashion, XM can be determined
INDUCTION MOTOR
DC Test for STATOR RESISTANCE
• The locked-rotor test later
used to determine total
motor circuit resistance
• However to determine rotor
resistance R2 that is very
important and affect the
torque-speed curve, R1
should be known
• There is a dc test for
determining R1. a dc power
supply is connected to two of 3
terminals of a Y connected
induction motor
• Current adjusted to rated
value & voltage between
terminals measured
INDUCTION MOTOR
DC Test for STATOR RESISTANCE
• reason for setting current to rated value is to
heat windings to same temperature of normal
operation
• 2R1= VDC/IDC or R1=VDC/[2 IDC]
• With R1, stator copper losses at no load can be
determined
• rotational losses determined as difference of Pin
at no load & stator copper loss
• R1 determined by this method is not accurate,
due to neglect of skin effect using an ac voltage
INDUCTION MOTOR
LOCKED ROTOR TEST
• Third test to determine cct.
Parameters of an induction
motor is called : locked-rotor
test
• In this test rotor is locked &
cannot move
• Voltage applied to motor,
voltage, current & power are
measured
• An ac voltage applied to
stator, current flow adjusted
to full-load value
• Then, voltage, current, &
power flowing to motor
measured
INDUCTION MOTOR
LOCKED ROTOR TEST
• Since rotor is stationary, slip s=1. & R2/s equal R2
(small value)
• Since R2 & X2 so small, all input current will flow
through them rather XM and circuit is a series of
X1,R1,X2 and R2
• There is one problem with this test in normal
operation, stator frequency is line frequency (50 or 60
Hz)
• At starting conditions, rotor also at power frequency
(while in normal operation slip 2 to 4 % and frequency
1 to 3 Hz) & it does not simulate normal operation
• A compromise : is to use a frequency 25% or less of
rated frequency
INDUCTION MOTOR
LOCKED ROTOR TEST
• This acceptable for constant resistance rotors
(design class A and D)
• it leaves a lot to be desired when looking for
normal rotor resistance of a variable resistance
rotor
• a great deal of care required taking
measurement for these tests
• a test voltage & frequency set up, current flow
in motor quickly adjusted to about rated
voltage, & input power, voltage and current
measured before motor heat up
INDUCTION MOTOR
LOCKED ROTOR TEST
P=√3 VT IL cos θ
• So locked-rotor P.F. found as:
PF = cosθ= Pin / [√3 VT IL]
• Impedance angle is θ=acos P.F.
• Magnitude of total impedance :
|ZLR| =Vφ/I1=VT/[√3 IL]
• Angle of total impedance is θ, therefore,
ZLR=RLR+jX’LR= |ZLR| cos θ +j |ZLR| sinθ