Section III – QUANTUM PHYSICS

Introduction to Quantum Physics

• Predicts how small particles and small

amounts of energy interact.
• Based on over 80 years of evidence
• -1900: All physics were explained by Classical
mechanics.
• Newtonian mechanics (1687)
• Young (1803) - wave nature of light
• Maxwell (1864) – electromagnetism
BUT there were three critical experiments in the pre-quantum
era which could NOT be explained by a straightforward
application of classical physics:
Black-body radiation (Planck, 1900)
The photoelectric effect (Einstein, 1905)
Optical line spectra (Bohr 's atom model, 1913)
 Black-body radiation

Wien (1894) and Lord Rayleigh (1900) tried to explain this spectrum based on
classical and electromagnetic theories. In the first case there were significant
deviations at low frequencies. In the second case, even though the theory agreed
well at low frequencies but was unlimited and was getting stronger and stronger as
the temperature is raised and the frequency increases.
.
Planck's radiation law (1900):

• the walls of the cavity as a collection of electric oscillators.

• all frequencies would be present.
• The average frequency increases with increasing
temperature.
• The energy E of an oscillator of frequency  that
E = nh ; n = 0, 1, 2, ... where h called Planck's
constant.
• Energy exchange in small units of h , called energy
quanta.
Thus the discrepancy at higher frequencies were solved by
the quantization of oscillator and thus the emission
radiations.
At high frequencies, even though many modes of vibration
are possible, not many are excited because it costs too
much energy to make a quantum at a high frequency
 The photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is a quantum electronic phenomenon in which

electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays or visible light. The emitted electrons
can be referred to as photoelectrons in this context. The effect is also termed
the Hertz Effect (1887) due to its discovery by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
The photoelectric effect
When light falls on a metal plate, electrons are
emitted from it.
The "photoelectric current" has two characteristics:
(1) The energy of the emitted electrons is
independent of the light intensity,
(2) Light whose frequency is lower than some
threshold value (fc) does not result in emission of
electrons, even for most intense beams of light.

http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/photoeffect.htm
Energy of photon = Energy needed to remove an electron
+ Kinetic energy of the emitted electron

h = F + K.E
Work function, F = ho

h (-o) = 1/2 m v2
Experimental results of the photoelectric emission

a) For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate

at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident light.
b) For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of
incident radiation below which no photoelectrons can be
emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency.
c) Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the
incident light but depends on the frequency of the incident light.
d) The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the
emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10-9 second.
 “Classical” Method Light as photons?
Increase energy by Vary wavelength, fixed amplitude
increasing amplitude
electrons electrons
emitted ? emitted ?
No
No
No Yes, with
low KE
No
Yes, with
No high KE

No electrons were emitted until the frequency of the light

exceeded the critical frequency, at which point electrons were
emitted from the surface!
Photoelectric effect
Quantum Picture
 Photons: Digital Camera & Images
Using a digital camera with many
pixels !

A given pixel is very, very small

~3000 photons ~10,000 photons
 gives fine image resolution

The individual spots on this

image and on the previous one
are the actual results of
~100,000 photons ~10 M photons
individual photons striking the
pixel array.

Wave picture cannot account for

individual pixels in camera being
hit. ~4 M photons ~30 M photons
 X-RAYS
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was a German physicist, who, on 8 November
1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength
range today known as X-RAYS or Röntgen rays, an achievement that
earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.

X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of high energy

electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range
of 10 to 0.01 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the
range 30×1015Hz to 30×1018Hz, and energies in the range 120
eV to 120 keV. X-rays with energy from about 0.12 to 12 keV are
classified as soft X-rays, and from about 12 to 120 keV as
hard X-rays, due to their penetrating abilities.
To produce X-Rays, we need a source of electrons
accelerated to high speeds, and a target material
(tungston/molebdenum) to receive the impact of the
electrons and interact with them.
• Since work functions are only a few
electronvolts where as the accelerating
potential (V) in X-ray tubes are typically
tens or thousands of volts, we can ignore
the work function.
• So, K.E = eV
• Therefore, hmax = eV
max = c / lmin
X-Ray Source
 Diffraction of X-Rays

http://www.eserc.stonybrook.edu/ProjectJava/Bragg/
X-ray diffraction from a multilater

X-Ray Diffractometer
Hard x-rays are the highest energy x-rays, while the lower energy x-rays are
referred to as soft x-rays.
 Uses of X-rays
1) In Medicine – Medical imaging – radiology – radiotherapy.
2) X-ray crystallography - is a method of determining the arrangement of
atoms within a crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and
scatters into many different directions.
Single crystal X-ray diffraction - a technique used to solve the complete
structure of crystalline materials, ranging from simple inorganic solids to
complex macromolecules, such as proteins.
Powder diffraction - a technique used to characterize the
crystallographic structure, crystallite size (grain size), and preferred
orientation in polycrystalline or powdered solid samples.
Thin film X-ray diffraction (at grazing angle incidence) - used to
characterize the crystallographic structure and preferred orientation of
substrate-anchored thin films.
High resolution X-ray diffraction is used to characterize thickness,
crystallographic structure, and strain in thin epitaxial films
Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is an analytical X-ray application
technique for the structural characterization of solid and fluid materials in
the nanometer range.
3) X-ray astronomy - is an observational branch of
astronomy, which deals with the study of X-ray emission
from celestial objects.
4) X-ray microscopic analysis - uses electromagnetic
radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very
small objects.
5) X-ray fluorescence - a technique in which X-rays are
generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing
energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition
of the sample.
6) Industrial radiography - uses x-rays for inspection of
industrial parts, particularly welds.
7) Airport security - luggage scanners use x-rays for
inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before
loading on aircraft.
X-ray detectors : Photographic plates (silver halide), Geiger
counter, scintillation counter, semiconductors.
Compton Effect
In this process, a photon is scattered off from a stationary electron (or
nucleus). The scattered photon loses some energy and thus has a lower
frequency than the incident photon. The amount of energy lost depends
on the angle, f. The higher the angle, the greater the energy lost. If l is
the wavelength of the incident photon, then the wavelength of the
scattered photon is given by

l`- l = h / mec (1-cosf)

where l is the wavelength of the photon before scattering,
l` is the wavelength of the photon after scattering
me is the mass of the electron
f is the angle by which the photon's heading changes
h is Planck's constant, and c is the speed of light.
h/mec = 2.43 x 10-12 m is known as Compton Wavelength
Principles of quantum mechanics
1. Energy quanta
2. Wave-particle duality
3. The uncertainty principle
 1. Energy quanta

Energy comes in discrete (specific) amounts=

“Quanta” or photons
The energy of this photon is given by
E=h

(h , Planck’s constant = 6.625x10-34 J•s)

 Light Waves
Until about 1900, the classical wave theory of light described
most observed phenomenon.

Light waves:

Characterized by:

 Amplitude (A)
 Frequency ()
 Wavelength (l)
Energy of wave a A2
(classically)

 = c/ l
 Testing your understanding:
Q: The intensity of a beam of light is increased but
the light’s frequency is unchanged. Which of the
following is true?
1. Thephotons travel faster.
2. Each photon has more energy.
3. There are more photons per second.
4. The photons are larger.
 So is light a
wave or a particle ?

On macroscopic scales, we can treat a large number of

photons as a wave.

When dealing with subatomic phenomenon, we are often

dealing with a single photon, or a few. In this case, you
cannot use the wave description of light.
 Waves versus Particles
• A particle is localized in space, and has
discrete physical properties such as
mass.
• A wave is inherently spread out over
many wave-lengths in space, and could
have amplitudes in a continuous range.
• Waves superpose and pass through
each other, while particles collide and
bounce off each other.
 2. Wave-particle duality
De Broglie
“If light can behave like a particle,
might particles act like waves”?
In 1923 Prince Louis de Broglie postulated
that ordinary matter (particle) can have
wave-like properties, with the wavelength
λ related to momentum p as,
h
l= de Broglie relation
p
l= h / gmv
de Broglie wavelength
g = 1/(1-v2/c2)1/2
 Wave-particle duality principle:
h
The momentum of photon is given by p=
l
h
The wavelength of a particle is is given by l=
p
We should see diffraction and interference of matter waves.
Is it possible???
CAUTION!! For particles other than photons relations E=h or =c/l are not applicable
Do particles exhibit interference ?

Firing bullets
at a
“double -slit”
with one slit
closed

Firing electrons
at a
“double -slit”
with one slit
closed
What about the other slit ?
With bullets, you get
what appears to be a
simple “sum” of the
two intensity distributions.

With electrons, you find

an “interference” pattern,
jus like with light waves ?
A typical electron diffraction pattern for a crystalline specimen
Testing your understanding:

Q: Compute the wavelength of an electron

(m = 9.1x10-31 kg) moving at 1x107 [m/s].
These electrons have a wavelength in
the region of X-rays .
 The uncertainty Principle
(discovered by Werner Heisenberg)

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle I says

that it is impossible to simultaneously
determine with absolute accuracy the
position (x) and momentum (p) of a particle.

DxDp  ½  ( = h/2p=1.054x10-34J.s)

Uncertainty in position Uncertainty in momentum

The following example and illustration help to
clarify the idea of Heisenberg's Uncertainty
Principle.

To see an electron, and thus determine

it's position, you might use a powerful
light microscope. For the electron to be
visible, at least one photon of light must
bounce off of it, and then pass through
the microscope into your eye. A problem
occurs here, as the photon transfers
some unknown amount of its momentum
to the electron. Thus, in the process of
finding an accurately position of the
electron (by making Dx really small), the
same light that allows you to see it
changes the electron's momentum to an
undeterminable extent (makes Dp very
large).
 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle II says
that it is impossible to simultaneously
determine with absolute accuracy the energy
(E) and the instant of time (t) the particle has
this energy.
DEDt  ½ 

Uncertainty in energy Uncertainty in time

If the life time is large (Dt), Energy is well

defined (DE is small ). If it remains in a state
only for a short time, uncertainty in the energy
will be greater.
 HOMEWORK
1) Find the Kinetic energy of the photoelectron emitted while U.V light of
wavelength 350 nm falls on potassium surface. Work function of
potassium is 2.2 eV.
2) For an X-ray machine with accelerating potential 50,000 V, find the
shortest wavelength of radiation emitted.
3) Calculate the interplanar distance for a crystal using X-ray diffraction
wavelength of 0.15405 nm, considering first order diffraction at an
angle of 30 degrees.
4) A monochromatic x-ray beam (wavelength 60 pm) is scattered through
45 degree. Find the wavelength of the scattered beam. (compton
scattering)
5) Consider an electron is in the lowest energy hydrogen atom state, its
position is known to an accuracy of about 0.05 nm (the radius of the
atom). How well is it possible to know the electron’s momentum? Its
velocity? Calculate its k.E. (me = 9.110-31 kg)
6) A particular optical fiber transmits light over the range 1300-1600 nm
(corresponding to a frequency range of 2.3x1014 Hz to 1.9x1014 Hz).
How long (approximately) is the shortest pulse that can propagate
down this fiber?
7. Find the energy of a photon whose wavelength is 4000 angstrom.
8. Find the wavelength and frequency of a 1 KeV photon.
9. An X-ray wavelength 0.3 Angstrom undergoes Compton scattering at an
angle 60 degrees. Find the wavelength of the scattered photon.
10. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 2 Kg mass moving with a velocity
25 m/s.
11. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of 40 KeV electrons used in an electron
microscope. (mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31 Kg).
12. Find the wavelength of the first line of the Lyman series.