Artificial Intelligence

Chapter 1: Introduction
Michael Scherger
Department of Computer Science
Kent State University

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 1

 What is Intelligence?
• Main Entry: in·tel·li·gence
Pronunciation: in-'te-l&-j&n(t)s
Function: noun
Etymology: Middle English, from Middle French, from Latin intelligentia, from intelligent-,
intelligens intelligent

• 1 a (1) : the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations : REASON;
also : the skilled use of reason (2) : the ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's
environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria (as tests) b Christian Science
: the basic eternal quality of divine Mind c : mental acuteness : SHREWDNESS

• 2 a : an intelligent entity; especially : ANGEL b : intelligent minds or mind <cosmic intelligence>

• 3 : the act of understanding : COMPREHENSION

• 4 a : INFORMATION, NEWS b : information concerning an enemy or possible enemy or an

area; also : an agency engaged in obtaining such information

• 5 : the ability to perform computer functions

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 2

 A Bit of Humor

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 3

 Goals of this Course
• Become familiar with AI techniques, including
their implementations
– Be able to develop AI applications
• Python, LiSP, Prolog, CLIPS

• Understand the theory behind the techniques,

knowing which techniques to apply when (and
why)

• Become familiar with a range of applications of

AI, including “classic” and current systems.

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 4

 What is Artificial Intelligence?
• Not just studying intelligent systems, but
building them…

• Psychological approach: an intelligent

system is a model of human intelligence

• Engineering approach: an intelligent

system solves a sufficiently difficult
problem in a generalizable way
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 5
 A Bit of AI History (section 1.3)
• Gestation (1943-1955)
– Early learning theory, first neural network, Turing test
– McCulloch and Pitts artificial neuron, Hebbian learning

• Birth (1956)
– Name coined by McCarthy
– Workshop at Dartmouth

• Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952-1969)

– GPS, physical symbol system hypothesis
– Geometry Theorem Prover (Gelertner), Checkers (Samuels)
– Lisp (McCarthy), Theorem Proving (McCarthy), Microworlds (Minsky et.
al.)
– “neat” (McCarthy @ Stanford) vs. “scruffy” (Minsky @ MIT)

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 6

 A Bit of AI History (section 1.3)
• Dose of Reality (1966-1973)
– Combinatorial explosion

• Knowledge-based systems (1969-1979)

• AI Becomes an Industry (1980-present)

– Boom period 1980-88, then AI Winter

• Return of Neural Networks (1986-present)

• AI Becomes a Science (1987-present)

– SOAR, Internet as a domain

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 7

 What is Artificial Intelligence?
(again)
• Systems that think like
humans
– Cognitive Modeling Approach
– “The automation of activities
that we associate with human
thinking...”
– Bellman 1978
• Systems that act like
humans
– Turing Test Approach
– “The art of creating machines
that perform functions that
require intelligence when
performed by people”
– Kurzweil 1990
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction
• Systems that think
rationally
– “Laws of Thought” approach
– “The study of mental faculties
through the use of
computational models”
– Charniak and McDermott
• Systems that act rationally
– Rational Agent Approach
– “The branch of CS that is
concerned with the
automation of intelligent
behavior”
– Lugar and Stubblefield
8
 Acting Humanly
• The Turing Test
(1950)
– Can machines think?
Human
– Can machines behave
intelligently?
?
Human
• Operational test for Interrogator

intelligent behavior
– The Imitation Game AI System

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 9

 Acting Humanly
• Turing Test (cont)
– Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30%
chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes
– Anticipated all major arguments against AI in
following 50 years
– Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,
reasoning, language understanding, learning

• Problem!
– The turning test is not reproducible, constructive, or
amenable to mathematical analysis

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 10

 Thinking Humanly
• 1960’s cognitive revolution
• Requires scientific theories of internal activities
of the brain
– What level of abstraction? “Knowledge” or “Circuits”
– How to validate?
• Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (top-
down)
• Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-up)
• Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience
– Now distinct from AI

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 11

 Thinking Rationally
• Normative (or prescriptive) rather than
descriptive
• Aristotle: What are correct arguments / thought
processes?
• Logic notation and rules for derivation for
thoughts
• Problems:
– Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical
deliberation
– What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts
should I have?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 12
 Acting Rationally
• Rational behavior
– Doing the right thing

• What is the “right thing”

– That which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given available information

• We do many (“right”) things without thinking

– Thinking should be in the service of rational action

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 13

 Applied Areas of AI
• Heuristic Search
• Computer Vision
• Adversarial Search (Games)
• Fuzzy Logic
• Natural Language Processing
• Knowledge Representation
• Planning
• Learning
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 14
 Examples
• Playing chess • Recognizing speech
• Driving on the • Diagnosing diseases
highway • Translating languages
• Mowing the lawn • Data mining
• Answering questions

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 15

 Heuristic Search
• Very large search space
– Large databases
– Image sequences
– Game playing
• Algorithms
– Guaranteed best answer
– Can be slow – literally years
• Heuristics
– “Rules of thumb”
– Very fast
– Good answer likely, but not guaranteed!
• Searching foreign intelligence for terrorist activity.

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 16

 Computer Vision
• Computationally taxing
– Millions of bytes of data
per frame
– Thirty frames per second
• Computers are scalar /
Images are
multidimensional
• Image Enhancement vs.
Image Understanding
• Can you find the terrorist
in this picture?

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 17

 Adversarial Search
• Game theory...
– Two player, zero sum – checkers, chess, etc.
• Minimax
– My side is MAX
– Opponent is MIN
• Alpha-Beta
– Evaluation function...”how good is board”
– Not reliable...play game (look ahead) as deep as
possible and use minimax.
– Select “best” backed up value.
• Where will Al-Qaeda strike next?

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 18

 Adversarial Search
1

X X O

MIN O

...
2 6

X X O X X O

MAX O O O O
X X

3 4 5 7 8 9

X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O

O O X O O O O X O O O O O O

X X X X X X X X X X

1-0=1 1-2=-1 1-1=0 *91* 0 10

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 19

 Example: Tic Tac Toe #1
• Precompiled move
table.
move
table

• For each input encode look

up
board, a specific
move (output
board)

• Perfect play, but is

it AI?

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 20

 Example: Tic Tac Toe #2
• Represent board as a magic square, one integer
per square

• If 3 of my pieces sum to 15, I win

• Predefined strategy:
– 1. Win
– 2. Block
– 3. Take center
– 4. Take corner
– 5. Take any open square

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 21

 Example: Tic Tac Toe #3
• Given a board, consider all possible moves (future
boards) and pick the best one

• Look ahead (opponent’s best move, your best move…)

until end of game

• Functions needed:
– Next move generator
– Board evaluation function

• Change these 2 functions (only) to play a different

game!
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 22
 Fuzzy Logic
• Basic logic is binary
– 0 or 1, true or false, black or white, on or off,
etc...
• But in the real world there are of “shades”
– Light red or dark red
– 0.64756
• Membership functions

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 23

 Fuzzy Logic
Linguistic
Appetite
Variable

Linguistic
Light Moderate Heavy Values

Membership
Grade

1000 2000 3000

Calories Eaten Per Day

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 24

 Natural Language Processing
• Speech recognition vs. natural language processing
– NLP is after the words are recognized
• Ninety/Ten Rule
– Can do 90% of the translation with 10% time, but 10% work
takes 90% time
• Easy for restricted domains
– Dilation
– Automatic translation
– Control your computer
• Say “Enter” or “one” or “open”
– Associative calculus
• Understand by doing

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 25

 Natural Language Processing
Net for Basic Noun Group
adjective

determiner noun
“The big grey dog” S1 S2 S3

Net for Prepositional Group

preposition NOUNG
“by the table in the corner” S1 S2 S3

Net for Basic Noun Group

PREPG
adjective

determiner noun
“The big grey dog by the S1 S2 S3
table in the corner”

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 26

 Knowledge Representation
• Predicate Logic
– On(table, lamp)
– In(corner, table)
– Near(table, dog)
– Prolog
• Graph Based
– Semantic Networks
– Frames
• Rule Based
– Expert Systems

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 27

 Planning
• Robotics
– If a robot enters a
room and sits down,
what is the “route”.
Table

• Closed world
• Rule based systems Chair

• Blocks world

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 28

 Planning
Robot
• Pickup(x) Hand
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
handempty(),
C
– Holding(x)
• Putdown(x) A B
– Holding(x)
Clear(B) On(C, A) OnTable(A)
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
Clear(C) Handempty OnTable(B)
handempty()
• Stack(x, y)
– Holding(x), clear(y)
– Handempty(), on(x, y), A
clear(x)
• Unstack(x, y) B
– Handempty(), clear(x), on(x,
y) C
– Holding(x), clear(x) Goal: [On(B, C) ^ On(A, B)]

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 29

 Learning
• Neural Networks
• Evolutionary Computing
• Knowledge in Learning
• Reinforcement Learning

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 30