Categories of computer networks

One way to categorize the different types of

computer network designs is by their scope
or scale.
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network )
 WAN (Wide Area Network )
LAN

LAN is generally a privately owned network

with in a single office, building or campus
covering a distance of a few kms.
The main reason for designing a LAN is to
share resources such as disks, printers,
programs and data
MAN

A network spanning a physical area larger

than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as
a city. A MAN might be owned and operated
by a single organization, but it usually will be
used by many individuals and organizations.
WAN

WAN spans a large geographic area, such as

a state, or country. WANs often connect
multiple smaller networks, such as local area
networks (LANs) or metro area networks
(MANs).
Error detection

CRC (cyclic redundancy check)

 A mathematical algorithm is used on the data block

to be sent to arrive at the CRC (a small block of bits
which are appended to the data block and sent by
the sender).
 At the destination, the receiver separates the data
block, recomputes the CRC using the same
algorithm and matches the received CRC with the
computed CRC.
 A mismatch indicates an error.
 LAN can use star, bus or ring topology. However,
bus topology is popular in the Ethernet LANs and
Token Bus LANS and Ring topology is popular in
the Token Ring LANs.
A modified version of Token Ring is FDDI

Ethernet and Token Ring are the most popular LANs

 LAN broad cast their message to all host on that
LAN. This is because, all the host share a single
transmission wire.
 The address in the packet or frame enables the
destination host to receive that packet, while all
other hosts ignore it.
 Broadcast network can be
1. Static
2. Dynamic
 In static method each host is given a fixed
time slice to send the information. If a host
does not have anything to send, that time
slice is wasted. That is why this method is
not very popular.
 In dynamic method, a host can send a
frame any time. Thus, if two host send a
frame at the same time, the two frames could
collide with each other.
 We need some arbitration to solve this problem. A protocol
called MAC (Media Access Control) performs this job and
decides which node can access the medium and when.
Dynamic method can be further subdivided into:
1. Centralized
2. Decentralized
In Centralized method, there is a single entity which decides
who would send the data next. This is typically a master-slave
method. A host wanting to send data can explicitly request this
unit for the permission.
In star topology, the hub can play the role of the master.
However if the arbitration unit goes down, the entire network
goes down.
 In decentralized method, we do not require
any external arbitrator for this.
So, more efficient and more popular.

This can be implemented in two major ways

1. Ethernet
2. Token Passing
Ethernet

 Ethernet is the name of a popular packet

switching LAN technology.
 Ethernet uses a single coaxial cable as the
transport medium. All hosts in the Ethernet
LAN connect to this cable.
 A device called transceiver is used to
establish the connection between a computer
and Ethernet.
 This transceiver carry the signals.
 It contains analog circuits for interfacing with the
cable and digital circuits for interfacing with the host.
 It able to determine when another host is using the
cable i.e. whether the cable is busy.
 Each host NIC (network interface card) controls the
operation of its transceiver using the network
software inside the host.
 At any point of time, the Ethernet bus can be in any
of the three states:
 Bus is idle
 Carries a legitimate signal i.e. it is busy
 Carries a erratic signal generated by a collision

The transceiver constantly listens to the bus i.e. it

measures the signal level to determine the state of
the bus.
 The transceiver does not connects to the host
directly. Instead, it connects to NIC, a small card
plugged on the motherboard of the host.

 It has a small CPU, memory and a limited instruction

set. It performs all the network related functions on
behalf of the host.

 Each NIC bears a unique hardware address that

identifies a host uniquely.
Ethernet properties
 Broadcast network
Every message travels across the entire cable and all NICs
receive it, but only the NIC of the correct destination accepts it.

 Best effort delivery

Ethernet hardware or software do not take care of missing
frame.

 Decentralized access control

There is no single centralized authority that dictates if a host
can transmit data. Instead, the Ethernet uses the approach of
carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).
 Multiple host can access the Ethernet bus simultaneously
through their transceivers and can determine if it is idle by
looking for the presence/absence of a carrier wave on the bus.
For this reason it is called CSMA

 When a host determines that no other host is using the

Ethernet, it transmits its own data on to the Ethernet.

 When the transceiver of a host begins transmission, the signal

does not immediately reach all parts of the network. It taken
some finite time. Therefore, until the signal reaches another
host continues to believe that cable is idle. Thus, two
transceiver believe that Ethernet is free for transmission and
can transmit data almost exactly at the same time.
 When this happens, the electrical signals of the two
transmissions intermingle and neither remains a meaningful
transmission. Such incidents termed as collisions, which
produce erratic signals, which the transceiver of both the
sending hosts can detect.
 To resolve collisions, while a host transmits the data, the
transceiver of the host continues to listen to the Ethernet to see
is a collision has occurred. If it has, the transceiver informs its
NIC about it.
 NIC stops wait for some time to retransmit the data.
 However, as soon as it detects a collision, it generates a
specific jamming signal across the bus, informing all the
nodes of the collision.
 The NIC of the other node trying to send some data
also detects the jamming signal and backs off.
 now, both the nodes wanting to send data wait for a
while. The question is : How long should they wait?
 The Ethernet standard specifies a binary
exponential back off policy where a sender waits
for a random time after a first collision, twice as long
if a retransmission also results in a collision, four
times as long if the retransmission also results in a
collision and so on.
 Ethernet Frame Format

Preamble Destination Source Frame Frame data CRC (4

(8 bytes) Address (6 Address (6 Type (64-1500 bytes)
bytes) bytes) (2 bytes) bytes)
Token ring
 Token ring network is based on ring topology
 A token ring network employs a mechanism called token
passing.
 All host on a token ring share the same physical medium, as all
the hosts are arranged to form a circular ring.
 The sending computer transmits a frame, which travels across
the ring. Each host on the ring check the destination address
and if it is not meant for it, forward it along. Only the actual
destination makes a copy of it i.e. accepts it. In last frame
comes back to the sender.
 In this, only the host which have a token will be able to send
frame.
 However, at the destination node, before it forwards a frame,
that host checks the CRC to ensure that there are no errors
and then not only accepts the frame, but also changes a flag bit
in the frame to indicate the receipt of a correct frame.
 The frame comes back to the sender, the sender can check the
flag bit to verify if the frame was received by the destination
successfully, or if there were any errors during transmission.
 Such an acknowledgement scheme is implemented only in the
token ring, unlike Ethernet, where there is no such theme.
Medium Access Control (MAC)

 Token ring does not employ CSMA/CD.

 The token ring hardware ensures that the permission
for data transmission is granted to each host on the
token ring in turn.
 The hardware facilitates this coordination by using a
special three byte frame called token
 A token contains a bit pattern that is completely
different from any other data frame, so that both can
be easily distinguished from each other.
Token ring frame format

Token ring describes three frame formats:

 Data
 Token
 Abort
 Data Frame

Destination Source Frame Data

Preamble CRC ED FS
Address Address (up to
(3bytes) (4 bytes) (1 byte) 1byte
(6 bytes) (6 bytes) 4,500 bytes)
Token Frame

SD AC ED
(1 byte) (1 byte) (1 byte)
Abort Frame

SD ED
(1 byte) (1 byte)
FDDI

 FDDI developed using optical fiber because

of optical fiber could support high data rates
(100 mbps)
 These days copper wires support such rates.
So, the copper version of FDDI is called
CDDI.
 FDDI uses glass fibers for data transmission
therefore encodes data bits in the form of
pulses of light.
FDDI properties

1. Token passing for media access control

2. Self Healing Mechanism
This is possible by second ring when a
network error occurs, or a host is down. In
such a case, the NIC uses the second ring,
which is used as backup for such failures
for data transmission. This is called
loopback.
FDDI Frame

Same as token data frame