Dr.

Dharmendra
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Office Location: Environmental Laboratory
Civil Department
(Ground Floor)
 Course No.: CED-223
Course title: Environmental Engineering –I (Water Supply and treatment)
L T P
3 1 0

Introduction: Scope and importance of Environmental Engineering and Management. Introduction to

Environmental pollution, Impact on human health, Significant water quality parameters for
Municipal Water Supplies. Standards and guidelines for Water Quality Parameter.

Demand and sources of water: Water demand Population forecast; Water quality requirements
Sources and its yield for water requirements; Intake structures; Water quality parameters and their
significance in domestic use.

Water treatment: Design of treatment units such as aeration, sedimentation, coagulation and
flocculation, filtration, Disinfection, water softening; Advanced water treatment methods.

Water distribution systems: Pumps and pumping system Pipes; Pipe appurtenances testing of water
main Distribution reservoirs, Distribution methods, Pipe network analysis, Planning of water supply
project; Plumbing and fittings for water supply House water connection, Design consideration for
water piping system and storage of water in building.

Rural water supply and treatment:

Water demand and treatment techniques for rural area, water problems and remedial measures.

Technical tour & report: within semester visit to water treatment plant and prepare report.
 National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, H.P. – 177005, India
Department of Civil Engineering
Course No.: CED-223
Course title: Environmental Engineering –I (Water Supply and treatment)
L T P Credits
Credits Description: 3 1 0 4

Course Type Core

Prerequisites CE 101, Environmental Science & Disaster Management
CE 212, Fluid Mechanics
Course Coordinator Dr.Dharmendra
Grading End Semester Exam (60%), Mid Sem Exam (20 %),
Class Test (10%), Others (10%) [Quizzes, assignments, etc..]
Class Timings Lectures Mon [9:25-10:20], Thur. [9:25-10:20], Fri [8:30-9:25],
Tutorials Mon [8:30-9:25],
Mid Term Exam March 02 – 08, 2015
Text Book
1.S.K.Garg, Water Supply Engineering, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi. 2003
2.B. C. Punmia, Ashok Jain, Arun Jain, Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Pub., New Delhi. 2003.
3.Davis and Cornwell, Elements of Water Supply and Waste water Disposal, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1998.
4.Ronald L. Droste, Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
5.McGhee, T.J., Water Supply & Sewerage, McGraw Hill International Edition, 1991.

Reference Book

•Ministry of Urban Development, Manual on Water Supply and Treatment 3rd Ed. Central Public Health & Environmental.
Engg. Organization, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1991.
•Warren Viessman Jr, Mark J. Hammer & Elizabeth Perez, Water Supply & Pollution Control, PHI
• Mark J. Hammer & Mark J. Hammer Jr., Water & Wastewater Technology, PHI
• Syed R. Qasim, Edward M. Motley, Guang Zhu, Water Works Engineering, PHI
Course Outcomes
 Topics Objectives Target Duration Readings
POs (Hours)

Introduction  Introduction to PO 1, PO 6 T(1, 8)

Scope and importance of Environmental Engineering Environment and its 4, PO 6, R3(1)
and Management - Introduction to Environmental components. PO 7, PO R4(1)
pollution - Impact on human health -, Significant water  Understand the necessity 12.
quality parameters for Municipal Water Supplies. of environmental
Standards and guidelines for Water Quality Parameter. engineering.
 Know the basic of water
quality & the concept of
implementing standards.

Demand and Sources of Water  How to forecast future PO 1, PO 14 T(2, 3, 4, 5,

Water demand - Population forecast - Water quality population of an area. 2, PO 3, 8)
requirements - Sources and its yield for water  Understand & analyze PO 4, PO R1(3, 4, 5, 8)
requirements- Intake structures – Water quality various requirements of 5, PO 6, R2(5, 8)
parameters and their significance in domestic use. water. PO 7, PO R3(2, 3, 4, 6)
 Understand & analyze 12. R4(1, 2, 3, 4,
various sources of water. 5 , 6)
 Analyze the importance of
water quality.
 Analyze and design the
intake structures.
 Topics Objectives Target Duration Readings
POs (Hours)

Water Treatment  Understand the basic PO 1, PO 16 T(9)

Design of treatment units such as aeration, components & concept of 2, PO 3, R1(9, 10, 11)
sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation, filtration, water treatment. PO 4, PO R2(7)
Disinfection, water softening- Advanced water
 Analyze in detail every 5, PO 6, R3(3, 4, 6, 8,
treatment methods.
component of a water PO 7, PO 9, 10, 11, 12)
treatment plant. 12. R4(7, 8, 9,
 Design of a water 10, 11, 12,
treatment plant. 13)

Water Distribution Systems  Analyze the concepts of PO 1, PO 12 T(1, 6, 7, 10,

Pumps and pumping system – Pipes - Pipe pumps & pipelines in 2, PO 3, 13)
appurtenances - Testing of water main – Distribution water supply PO 4, PO R1(6)
reservoirs - Distribution methods - Pipe network  Understand the concepts 5, PO 6, R2(8)
analysis - Planning of water supply project & requirements of water PO 7, PO R3(3, 7, 13)
distribution system. 10, PO 11, R4(14, 15,
 Analysis of water PO 12. 16)
distribution system.
 How to plan a water
supply project.
 Topics Objectives Target Duration Readings
POs (Hours)

Plumbing and Fittings For Water Supply  How to supply water to your PO 1, PO 3, 3 T(11)
House water connection, Design consideration house. PO 4, PO 5, R1(7)
for water piping system and storage of water in  Understand all the requirements PO 6, PO 7, R2(8)
building.
for house supply PO 11, R4(17)
PO 12.

Rural Water Supply and Treatment
Water demand and treatment techniques for
rural area, water problems and remedial
measures.
 How to supply water in rural PO 1, PO 2, 3 T(12)
area, understand and analyse all PO 3, PO 4,
the concepts of water supply PO 5, PO 6,
required for a rural area. PO 7, PO 10,
PO 11, PO 12.
 Introduction
• Importance of water & Global Distribution of
Water
• Sources of Water for Development & Pollution
• Surface water Development & Pollution
• Groundwater Development & Pollution
• Water Supply Planning
• Water Quality Management
• Water Law
• Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM)
 Global Distribution of Water
Source Volume Percent
Ocean 97.2000
Glaciers and other ice 2.1500
Ground Water 0.6100
Lakes
fresh 0.0090
saline 0.0080
Soil Moisture 0.0050
Atmosphere 0.0010
Rivers 0.0001
Distribution of water stored on the earth

1. 97% of all water on earth is in

oceans.
2. ~ 2% of the earth's water in ice caps
& glaciers
3. About 0.6% of earth's water is
groundwater
4. Water in rivers, lakes, and the
atmosphere amounts to less than 0.02%
of earth's water
Sources of Water for Development
• Water is considered one of the major resources for
development in any nation. Its supply in sufficient
quantity, adequate quality at the right time is critical to
all aspect of civilization.
• Early civilizations flourished along river valleys where
there was abundant supply of water to support life.
• The ultimate sources of water on earth are indicated in
the Hydrological cycle, this is the cyclic exchange of
water between the land, sea and Air systems on earth.
The figure below explains the cycle better
 Hydrologic Cycle

Precipitation

Evaporation
Precipitation

Evaporation
Runoff
Infiltration
 Water sources

• Atmospheric water – Rainfall, Dew, Snow etc.

• Surface water – Rivers, Sea, Oceans, Streams,

• Lakes, Springs etc.

• Groundwater – Aquifers
 Water Supply Planning
• The development and utilization of available water
resources require adequate planning and design.
• In order to select a suitable water supply source, the
demand that will be placed on it must be known.
• The elements of water demand include the average daily
water use and the peak rate of demand.
• In the planning process, the ability of the water In the
planning process, the ability of the water source to meet
demands during critical periods (when surface flows and
groundwater tables are low) must be determined.
• The “peak demand rate” must be estimated in order to
determine plumbing and pipe sizing, pressure losses and
storage requirements necessary to supply enough water
during periods of peak water demand.
 Water Quality Management
• The quality of water is determined by its physical, chemical and
biological properties.
• Naturally existing water contains impurities which need to be
removed by treatment.
• Natural waters contains suspended solids as well as dissolved
substances, these must be either removed or kept at within certain
limits to make the water potable.
• The tolerable limit of impurities in water depends
• The tolerable limit of impurities in water depends on the purpose
for which it is to be used for, water that is completely free from
suspended or dissolved matter eg. Distilled water is unpalatable.
• Water for domestic purposes must not contain disease-causing
organisms (Pathogens)
• water for washing in a laundry or textile factory should be free of
suspended matter.
 Water Quality Management
Contd
• Substances found in surface water depend on the catchment where
it was generated, impurities like clay, organic and inorganic mineral
matter, algae, bacteria and protozoa may be found in suspended or
colloidal form.
• Dissolved gasses like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide may also be present.
• Organic matters found in water may include ammonia, organic
acids, chlorides, nitrites and nitrates; they may be found in
dissolved state.
• Pollution of surface water may also occur as a result of the
following activities of Man
 Discharge of effluents from industries
 Discharge of domestic wastes from homes, abattoirs etc.
 Leaching and discharge of contaminants from agricultural lands eg.
Fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides etc
 Acid rains due to heavy air pollution from industrial estates or parks
• Water Law
• In regions where the available water is inadequate to
meet the needs of potential users, a system of laws has
been developed to determine who has the right to
water when shortages occur.
• Water law plays a major role in the economic aspects
of water development since limitations on who may
develop water often control how it is developed and
utilized.
• Riparian Rights
• The doctrine of riparian rights evolved from Europe
and has been adopted world wide with little or no
modification.
• The doctrine holds that the owner of the land adjacent
to a stream is entitled to receive the full natural flow of
the stream without change in quantity and quality.
• Prior Appropriation
• This doctrine evolved as a result of the failure of the
riparian doctrine to meet modern challenges of allocating
water equitably.
• This gives room of access to water for land owners who are
not located in close proximity to the stream.
• Water is appropriated based on the principle of “first in
time, first in right”
• Groundwater Law
• Under the common law, rights to groundwater are inherent
in the overlying property; the owner of this property is free
to abstract the water.
• This can only hold if the groundwater resource is vast, but if
the water is inadequate to meet all needs problems will
emerge and this often lead to court cases which brought
about decisions that tends towards the doctrine of
reasonable use.
• National water policy
• The nation’s water sources are under serious threat from inadequate
catchment management and widespread pollution, including the
indiscriminate disposal of hazardous substances.
• The National Water Resources Policy aims at providing a framework for
addressing these challenges in order to achieve the following:
 Clear and coherent regulation.

 Clear definitions of the functions and relationship of sector

 institutions. institutions.

 Coordination Finds solution to the problem of dwindling funds.

 Reliable and adequate data for planning and project ions.

 Decentralization in order to boost efficiency, performance and sustainability.

 Autonomy of water supply agencies.

 Regard water as an economic good.

 Create public awareness about water conservation and management.

 Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM)
• At its simplest, integrated water resources management is a
logical and appealing concept.
• Its basis is that the many different uses of water resources
are interdependent.
• High irrigation demands and polluted drainage flows from
agriculture mean less freshwater for drinking or industrial
use; contaminated municipal and industrial wastewater
pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; if water has to be
left in a river to protect fisheries and ecosystems, less can
be diverted to grow crops.
• There are plenty more examples of the basic theme that
unregulated use of scarce water resources is wasteful and
inherently unsustainable.
 (IWRM) contd..
• Integrated water resources management is therefore a systematic
process for the sustainable development, allocation and monitoring
of water resource use in the context of social, economic and
environmental objectives .

• A meeting in Dublin in 1992 gave rise to four principles that have

been the basis for much of the subsequent water sector reform:
 Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life,
development and the environment.
 Water development and management should be based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and pol icy makers at
all levels.
 Women play a central part in the provision, management and
safeguarding of water.
 Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be
 recognized as an economic good as well as a social good.
 Water pollution & Impact on health
• Source of pollution: • Surface water Pollution
– Natural – Point source
• Precipitation – Non Point source or
• Atmosphere Diffused source
• Soil erosion
• Surface runoff
• Ground water Pollution
– Anthropogenic – Depleting water table
• Domestic & Industrial – Metal & metalloid leach
wastewater – Shallow irrigation
• Solid Waste &
• Water-borne Diseases
 Diseases Related to Water

Water-borne Water-based
Diseases Diseases

Water-washed Water-related
Diseases Diseases
 Water-borne Diseases
• Diseases caused by ingestion of water contaminated by
human or animal excrement, which contain pathogenic
microorganisms
or
• Transmission occurs by drinking contaminated water,
particularly contamination by pathogens transmitted
from human excreta.
• These include most of the enteric and diarrheal diseases
caused by bacteria and viruses worldwide.
• Include cholera, typhoid, amoebic and bacillary
dysentery and other diarrheal diseases
 LIST OF INFECTIOUS AGENTS POTENTIALLY
PRESENT IN DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATED
BY SEWAGE
ORGANISM DISEASE REMARKS/Symptoms
Bacteria
Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis Diarrhea
(enteropathogenic)
Legionella pneumophila Legionellosis Acute respiratory illness
Leptospira (150 spp.) Leptospirosis Jaundice, fever
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever High fever, diarrhoea
Salmonella (~1700 spp.) Salmonellosis Food poisoning
Shigella (4 spp.) Shigellosis Bacillary dysentery
Vibrio cholerae Cholera Extremely heavy diarrhoea,
dehydration
Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinosis Diarrhoea
 LIST OF INFECTIOUS AGENTS POTENTIALLY
PRESENT IN DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATED
BY SEWAGE
ORGANISM DISEASE REMARKS/Symptoms
Protozoa
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis Diarrhoea, dysentery
Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Diarrhoea
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic dysentery Prolonged diarrhoea with
bleeding
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis Mild to severe diarrhoea,
nausea
Viruses
Enteroviruses (67 types, Gastroenteritis, heart
e.g., polio, echo, and anomalies, meningitis Not available
Coxsackie viruses)
Hepatitis A Infectious hepatitis Jaundice, fever
Norwalk agent Gastroenteritis Vomiting
 In addition, water-borne disease can be caused by
the pollution of water with chemicals that have
an adverse effect on health
• The major contaminants of concern, in potable
water supplies are:
a) Suspended solids;
b) Biodegradable organics (proteins,
carbohydrates and fats);
c) Pathogens;
d) Nutrients (Nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon);
e) Priority pollutants (highly toxic chemicals);
f) Refractory organics (pesticides, phenols,
surfactants);
g) Heavy metals;
h) Dissolved inorganic (nuisance chemicals).
 Suspended solids

• The presence of suspended solids in water gives

rise to turbidity.

• Suspended solids may consist of clay, silt,

airborne particulates, colloidal organic particles,

plankton and other microscopic organisms.

 Biodegradable organics
• Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, and
fats, biodegradable organics are measured most
commonly in terms of BOD (Biological Oxygen
Demand).
• BOD is the quantity of oxygen required for the
oxidation of organic matter by bacterial action in the
presence of oxygen.
• The higher the demand for oxygen (the more organic
the pollution) the less is the oxygen left to support life.
• Urban sewage commonly has a BOD of 300-500
mg/litre.
• Arsenic
• Flouride
• Nitrates from fertilizers
• Carcinogenic pesticides (DDT)
• Lead (from pipes)
• Heavy Metals
 HEALTH EFFECTS Arsenic

 Over a prolonged contact exposure the resulting symptoms can be very dangerous and can
cause focal hyperemia, which means it decreases to blood flow to your arteries and veins and
vesicular eruptions.
IMPACT OF SKELETAL FLOUROSIS ON
HUMAN HEALTH
 Water-washed Diseases

• Diseases caused by poor personal hygiene and

skin and eye contact with contaminated water

• These include scabies, trachoma, typhus, and

other flea, lice and tick-borne diseases.

 Water-based Diseases
• Diseases caused by parasites found in
intermediate organisms living in contaminated
water
• Schistosomiasis is the second most important
• parasitic infection after malaria (public health and
economic impact).
• Caused by :Schistosoma haematobium, S.
japonicum,
• Dracunculiasis, also called guinea worm disease
(GWD)
Free-swimming larvae penetrate human skin. The larvae develop in fresh-water snails
 Water-related Diseases
• Water-related diseases are caused by insect
vectors, especially mosquitoes, that breed or
feed near contaminated water.
• Include dengue, filariasis, malaria,
onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis and yellow
fever

• Note: They are not typically associated with

lack of access to clean drinking water or
sanitation services
 Other Water-borne diseases

• Bathing
• Swimming
• Other recreational activities that have
water contact
• Agriculture
• Aquaculture
 The Problem

• ~80% of infectious diseases

• > 5 million people die each year
• > 2 million die from water-related diarrhea
alone
• Most of those dying are small children
 Other Consequences

• Lost work days

• Missed educational opportunities
• Official and unofficial healthcare costs
• Draining of family resources
Control & Prevention
 Global

Governments

Communities

Individuals
 Education Issues
• Hygiene education
• Good nutrition
• Improvements in habitation and general
sanitation
• Higher education training in water-related
issues
 Global Surveillance

• Public health infrastucture

• Standardized surveillance of water-borne
disease outbreaks
• Guidelines must be established for
investigating and reporting water-borne
diseases
 Communication and the Media

• Impacts at all levels

• Very powerful, when others fail

 General Guidelines
• Avoid contacting soil that may be contaminated
with human feces.
• Do not defecate outdoors.
• Dispose of diapers properly.
• Wash hands with soap and water before handling
food.
• When traveling to countries where sanitation and
hygiene are poor, avoid water or food that may
be contaminated.
• Wash, peel or cook all raw vegetables and fruits
before eating.
 A Simple Rule of Thumb

"Boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget

it"
 More Challenges

• Developed countries and chlorine-resistant

microbes
• Climate Changes
• Economic barriers for developing countries
to sanitize large amounts of water
 The Answer

• Unmet human needs for water

• Education
• Commitment to the elimination of specific
diseases
• Research
Demand
and
source of
water
 Municipal Water Supply:
Sources and Quality
Raw Water Source :The various sources of water can be
classified into two categories:
• Surface sources, such as
– Ponds and lakes;
– Streams and rivers;
– Storage reservoirs; and
– Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at present
Technology available.
• Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as
– Springs;
– Infiltration wells ; and
– Wells and Tube-wells.
 Water Quality
Physical Characteristics:
Turbidity
Colour
Taste and Odour
Temperature
• Chemical Characteristics:
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Iron
Solids
Nitrates
• Bacteriological Characteristics:
MPN
Plate count
 Turbidity
• If a large amount of suspended solids are present in water, it will appear turbid in
appearance.
• The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of particles present in
water.
• Earlier this was measured by Jackson candle turbidity meter. The calibration was
done based on suspensions of silica from Fuller's earth.
• The depth of sample in the tube was read against the part per million (ppm) silica
scale with one ppm of suspended silica called one Jackson Turbidity unit (JTU).
• Because standards were prepared from materials found in nature such as Fuller's
earth, consistency in standard formulation was difficult to achieve.
• These days turbidity is measured by applying Nephelometry, a technique to
measure level of light scattered by the particles at right angles to the incident light
beam.
• The scattered light level is proportional to the particle concentration in the
sample. Based on Principle of Beer-Lambert Law
• The unit of expression is Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU).
• The IS values for drinking water is 1 to 5 NTU.
• Beyond this limit it becomes unpleasant.
Spectroscopic Methods of Analysis
• Substances can absorb radiation in
specific wavelengths of the visible
range of the electromagnetic
spectrum
• This is practical for obtaining
quantitative chemical information
through the use of a
spectrophotometer or a colorimeter
• This ratio of incident radiation (I) to
outputted radiation (Io) is called
transmittance (T)
T = Io/I
• Absorbance, A, is related to
transmission by the equation
A = – log 10 T
 LIMITATIONS OF THE BEER-LAMBERT
LAW
• Deviations in absorptive coefficients at high
concentrations (>0.01M) due to electrostatic
interactions between molecules in close proximity
• Scattering of light due to particulates in the
sample
• Shifts in chemical equilibrium as a function of
concentration
• Fluorescence or phosphorescence of the sample
• stray light
 Colour

• Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or

some inorganic materials may impart colour to the
water.
• It can be measured by comparing the colour of water
sample with other standard glass tubes containing
solutions of different standard colour intensities.
• The standard unit of colour is that which is produced
by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one
litre of distilled water.
• The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
• Beyond this limit taste becomes unpleasant.
 Taste and Odour
• Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating substance
with the appropriate human receptor cell.
• Most organic and some inorganic chemicals, originating
from municipal or industrial wastes, contribute taste and
odour to the water.
• Taste and odour can be expessed in terms of odour
intensity or threshold values.
• A new method to estimate taste of water sample has been
developed based on flavour known as 'Flavour Profile
Analysis' (FPA).
• The character and intensity of taste and odour discloses the
nature of pollution or the presence of microorganisms.
 Temperature
• The increase in temperature decreases
palatability, because at elevated temperatures
carbon dioxide and some other volatile gases
are expelled.
• The ideal temperature of water for drinking
purposes is 5 to 12 °C - above 25 °C, water is
not recommended for drinking.
 pH
• pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition
of water.
• It is expressed on a scale ranging from 0 to 14,
which is the common logarithm of the reciprocal
of the hydrogen ion concentration.
• The recommended pH range for treated drinking
waters is 6.5 to 8.5.
• Effect: Beyond this range the water will effect the
mucous membrane and / or water supply system
 Acidity

• The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to

neutralize bases.
• Acidity of water may be caused by the presence
of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral acids and
salts of strong acids and weak bases.
• It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium
carbonate.
• Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon
dioxide or carbonic acids.
• Carbon dioxide causes corrosion in public water
supply systems.
 Alkalinity

• The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to

neutralize acids.
• It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.
• The various forms of alkalinity are (a) hydroxide alkalinity,
(b) carbonate alkalinity, (c) hydroxide plus carbonate
alkalinity, (d) carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and (e)
bicarbonate alkalinity, which is useful mainly in water
softening and boiler feed water processes.
• Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the
optimum coagulant dosage.
• Desirable 200 mg/L CaCO3 Permissible limit 600 mg/L
CaCO3
• Beyond this limit taste becomes unpleasant.
 Hardness

• If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard.

• Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations.
• The principal hardness causing cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous
and manganese ions.
• The major anions associated with these cations are sulphates, carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides and nitrates.
• The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium
concentrations, both expressed as calcium carbonate, in mg/L.
• Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate hardness and permanent or
non carbonate hardness.
• Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and carbonate ion can be
precipitated by prolonged boiling.
• Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed by boiling, hence the term
permanent hardness.
• Desirable 300 mg/L as CaCO3 Permissible limit 600 mg/L as CaCO3.
• Encrustation in water supply structure and adverse effects on domestic use.
 Chlorides

• Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or

more of the cations of calcium, magnesium, iron and
sodium.
• Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of
their high solubility in water.
• Each human being consumes about six to eight grams of
sodium chloride per day, a part of which is discharged
through urine and night soil.
• Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates
sewage pollution.
• Desirable 250 mg/L Permissible limit 1000 mg/L .
• Beyond this limit tast, corrosion and palatability are
effected
 Sulphates
• Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate
mineral and oxidation of sulphides.
• Sulphates are associated generally with calcium,
magnesium and sodium ions.
• Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads
to scale formation in boilers.
• It also causes odour and corrosion problems under aerobic
conditions.
• Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L, for some industries.
Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be
extended upto 400 mg/L.
• Beyond this causes gastrointestinal irritation when
magnesium or sodium are present
 Iron
• Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide.
• When it comes in contact with water, it dissolves to
form ferrous bicarbonate under favorable conditions.
• This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidised into ferric
hydroxide, which is a precipitate.
• Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to
soluble ferrous ion.
• Iron can impart bad taste to the water, causes
discolouration in clothes and incrustations in water
mains.
• Desirable limit for drinking water is 0.3 mg/L. May be
extended upto 1.0mg/L.
 Solids
• The sum total of foreign matter present in water is termed
as 'total solids'.
• Total solids is the matter that remains as residue after
evaporation of the sample and its subsequent drying at a
defined temperature (103 to 105 °C).
• Total solids consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile
(inorganic or fixed) solids.
• Further, solids are divided into suspended and dissolved
solids.
• Solids that can settle by gravity are settleable solids.
• The others are non-settleable solids.
• Desirable limit for drinking water is 500 mg/L. May be
extended upto 3000 mg/L of dissolved limits.
 Nitrates

• Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching

of fertilizers from soil during surface run-off and
also nitrification of organic matter.
• Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an
indication of pollution.
• Concentration of nitrates above 45 mg/L cause a
disease methemoglobinemia (Blue baby disease).
• Desirable limit for drinking water is 45 mg/L. May
be extended upto 100 mg/L Nitrates as NO3.
 Bacteriological Characteristics:
• Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates
the degree of pollution.
• Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species of disease
producing pathogenic bacteria.
• Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non
pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a member of coliform group,
also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.
• Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to
adverse condition than any other group.
• So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful
species will be very less.
• So that coliform group serves as indicator of contamination.
• In drinking water number of bacteria should be nil.
 Most Probable Number
• Most probable number is a number which represents the bacterial
density which is most likely to be present.
• E.Coli is used as indicator of pollution.
• E.Coli ferment lactose with gas formation with 48 hours incubation
at 35°C. Based on this E.Coli density in a sample is estimated by
multiple tube fermentation procedure, which consists of
identification of E.Coli in different dilution combination.
• MPN value is calculated as follows:
• Five 10 ml (five dilution combination) tubes of a sample is tested for
E.Coli. If out of five only one gives positive test for E.Coli and all
others negative.
• From the tables, MPN value for one positive and four negative
results is read which is 2.2 in present case.
• The MPN value is expressed as 2.2 per 100 ml. These numbers are
given by Maccardy based on the laws of statistics.
 Standard Plate Count Test
• In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as
colonies, by innoculating a known volume of
sample into a solidifiable nutrient medium
(Nutrient Agar), which is poured in a petridish.
• After incubating (35°C) for a specified period
(24 hours), the colonies of bacteria (as spots)
are counted.
• The bacterial density is expressed as number
of colonies per 100 ml of sample.
 Membrane Filter Technique
• In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered
through a membrane with opening less than 0.5
microns.
• The bacteria present in the sample will be retained
upon the filter paper.
• The filter paper is put in contact of a suitable nutrient
medium and kept in an incubator for 24 hours at 35°C.
• The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium and
visible colonies are counted. Each colony represents
one bacterium of the original sample.
• The bacterial count is expressed as number of colonies
per 100 ml of sample.
 Demand & population forecasting
• Purpose and Scope:
• How much potable water is used today, and in what
locations?
• From which sources does the potable water originate, and
once used, where does it go for wastewater treatment?
• Following treatment, how much of the water is reused, and
where is the balance disposed of?
• Are there future imbalances in water supply, wastewater
disposal or reclaimed water usage, and if so, in which
planning areas?
• Are there planning areas with adequate capacity to address
imbalances?
 Water Quantity Estimation
• The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which
the water supply scheme has to be designed requires
following data: Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand
in litres per day per head)
• Quantity= Per capita demand x Population
Average Daily Per Capita Demand
= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
• Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
• Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
 Water Consumption Rate
It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public,
since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption.

The various types of water demands, which a city may have, may be broken into
following classes:

Water Consumption for Various Purposes:

Si.no. Types of Consumption Normal Range Average %
(lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrial and Commercial Demand 45-450 135 30
3 Public Uses including Fire Demand 20-90 45 10
4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25
Trend & Facts of Domestic Water Uses
in Different Nation
 The demand of water
• Domestic water requirement for urban population:
• According to National Water Policy (2002), domestic
water supplies for urban areas under various
conditions are given below.
• The units mentioned “lpcd” stands for Liters per Capita
per Day”.
1. 40 lpcd where only spot sources are available
2. 70 lpcd where piped water supply is available but no
sewerage system
3. 125 lpcd where piped water supply and sewerage system
are both available.
4. 150 lpcd may be allowed for metro cities
 Domestic and livestock water
requirement for rural population
• This may be done through individual effort of the
users by tapping a local available source or
through co-operative efforts, like Panchayats or
Block Development Authorities.
• The accepted norms for rural water supply
according to National Water Policy (2002) under
various conditions are given below.
40 lpcd or one hand pump for 250 persons within a
walking distance of 1.6 km or elevation difference of
100 m in hills.
30 lpcd additional for cattle in Desert Development
Programme (DDP) areas.
 Factors affecting per capita demand
1. Size of the city
2. Presence of industries.
3. Climatic conditions.
4. Habits of people and their economic status.
5. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the
consumption will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
6. Pressure in the distribution system.
7. Efficiency of water works administration
8. Cost of water.
9. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two
different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain
fixed monthly rate.
 Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

• Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer.

Firebreak outs are generally more in summer, increasing
demand. So, there is seasonal variation .

• Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out

more water on Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing
demand on these days.

• Hourly variations During active household working hours i.e.

from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening.
 Design Periods
• The future period for which a provision is made in the water
supply scheme is known as the design period.

• Design period is estimated based on the following:

 Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.
 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.
 Design period of different project
component
S.no. Item Design period in years
1 Storage by dams 50
2 Infiltration works 30
3 Pumping
3.I Pump house 30
3.II Electric motors and pumps 15
4 Water treatment units 15
5 Pipe connection to the several treatment unit 30
and other small appurtenances
6 Raw water and clear water conveying mains 30
7 Clear water reservoirs at the head works, 15
balancing tanks and service reservoirs (
overhead or ground level)
8 Distribution system 30
 Population Forecasting Methods
• Arithmetic Increase Method
• Geometric Increase Method
• Incremental Increase Method
• Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
• Simple Graphical Method
• Comparative Graphical Method
• Ratio Method
• Logistic Curve Method
 Population Forecasting Methods
Cont…
• Arithmetic Increase Method :
• This method is based on the assumption that the population
increases at a constant rate; i.e. dP/dt=constant=k; Pt= P0+kt.
• This method is most applicable to large and established cities.
• Geometric Increase Method:
• This method is based on the assumption that percentage
growth rate is constant i.e. dP/dt=kP; lnP= lnP0+kt.
• This method must be used with caution, for when applied it
may produce too large results for rapidly grown cities in
comparatively short time.
• This would apply to cities with unlimited scope of expansion.
 Population Forecasting Methods
Cont…
• Incremental Increase Method : Used on the basis of the
Average of the incremental increases in the past population of
city is positive or negative.
• The population for a future decade is worked out by adding
the mean arithmetic increase to the last known population as
in the arithmetic increase method, and to this is added the
average of incremental increases, once for first decade, twice
for second and so on
• Decreasing Rate of Growth Method : In this method, the
average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out,
and is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase to
get the percentage increase of next decade.
 Population Forecasting Methods
Cont…
• Simple Graphical Method: In this method, a graph is plotted
from the available data, between time and population.
• The curve is then smoothly extended upto the desired year.
• This method gives very approximate results and should be
used along with other forecasting methods.
• Comparative Graphical Method:In this method, the cities
having conditions and characteristics similar to the city whose
future population is to be estimated are selected.
• It is then assumed that the city under consideration will
develop, as the selected similar cities have developed in the
past.
 Population Forecasting Methods
Cont…
• Ratio Method:In this method, the local population and the country's
population for the last four to five decades is obtained from the census
records.
• The ratios of the local population to national population are then worked out
for these decades.
• A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and extended upto
the design period to extrapolate the ratio corresponding to future design
year.
• This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national population at the end of
the design period, so as to obtain the required city's future population.
Drawbacks:
• Depends on accuracy of national population estimate.
• Does not consider the abnormal or special conditions which can lead to
population shifts from one city to another.
 Population Forecasting Methods
Cont…
• Logistic Curve Method
• The three factors responsible for changes in population are :
(i) Births, (ii) Deaths and (iii) Migrations.
• Logistic curve method is based on the hypothesis that when
these varying influences do not produce extraordinary
changes,
• The population would probably follow the growth curve
characteristics of living things within limited space and with
limited economic opportunity.
• The curve is S-shaped and is known as logistic curve.
 Problem
• Predict the population for the years 1981, 1991,
1994, and 2001 from the following census figures
of a town by different methods.

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population: 60 65 63 72 79 89 97 120
(thousands)
 Solution
Year Population: Increment per Incremental Percentage Increment per
Decade
(thousands) Decade Increase
1901 60 - - -

1911 65 +5 - (5/60) x100=+8.33

1921 63 -2 -7 (2/65) x100=-3.07

1931 72 +9 +11 (9/63) x100=+14.28

1941 79 +7 -2 (7/72) x100=+9.72

1951 89 +10 +3 (10/79) x100=+12.66

1961 97 +8 -2 (8/89) x100=8.98

1971 120 +23 +15 (23/97) x100=+23.71

Net values 1 +60 +18 +74.61

Averages - 8.57 3.0 10.66

+ = Increase - = Decrease
Arithmetical Progression Method:
Arithmetic Expression Pn = P + ni
• Average increases per decade = i = 8.57
• Population for the years,
• 1981= population 1971 + ni, here n=1 decade
• = 120 + 8.57 = 128.57
• 1991= population 1971 + ni, here n=2 decade
• = 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14
• 2001= population 1971 + ni, here n=3 decade
• = 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71
• 1994= population 1991 + (population 2001 - 1991) x 3/10
• = 137.14 + (8.57) x 3/10 = 139.71
 Incremental Increase Method
• Population for the years,
• 1981= population 1971 + average increase per
decade + average incremental increase
• = 120 + 8.57 + 3.0 = 131.57
• 1991= population 1981 + 11.57
• = 131.57 + 11.57 = 143.14
• 2001= population 1991 + 11.57
• = 143.14 + 11.57 = 154.71
• 1994= population 1991 + 11.57 x 3/10
• = 143.14 + 3.47 = 146.61
 Geometric Progression Method:
• Average percentage increase per decade = 10.66
• P n = P (1+i/100) n
• Population for 1981 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n
• = 120 x (1+10.66/100), i = 10.66, n = 1
• = 120 x 110.66/100 = 132.8
• Population for 1991 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n
• = 120 x (1+10.66/100) 2 , i = 10.66, n = 2
• = 120 x 1.2245 = 146.95
• Population for 2001 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n
• = 120 x (1+10.66/100) 3 , i = 10.66, n = 3
• = 120 x 1.355 = 162.60
• Population for 1994 = 146.95 + (15.84 x 3/10) = 151.70
 Intake Structure
• The basic function of the
intake structure is to help in
safely withdrawing water
from the source over
predetermined pool levels.
• From pool this water
discharge to water
treatment Plant through
conduit (normally called
intake conduit).
 The following are the various types of intake
structures used are,
• Simple Submerged Intakes
• Intake Towers
– Wet Intake Towers
– Dry Intake Tower
• Medium Sized River Intake Structure
– Twin well type of Intake Structure
– Single well type of intake structures
• Canal Intake Structures
• Intakes for Sluice-Ways of Dams
 Simple submerged intake:
– It is starting end of withdrawal pipe with a simple support
of concrete block or rock fill timber crib.
– A sump well at shore is connected with withdrawal pipe
from where water is lifted by pump.
– The intake opening is covered by screen so as to prevent
entry of debris, ice etc specially in river.
– intake opening is generally kept at about 2 to 2.5 m above
the bottom of the lake and thus to avoid entry of silt and
sediment.
– It is used for small water supply project drawing water
from streams or lakes where little change in water surface
elevation.
– It is not used in bigger project on rivers or reservoirs
 Intake towers
• It is generally used for large project on rivers and reservoirs
where surface water elevation fluctuating.
• quantity and quality of water withdraw controlled by making
of gate arrangement .
• The gate should be high enough above the reservoir bed so
that sediment is not withdraw.
• Generally intake tower used in reservoir.
• When large amount of water withdraw form river then intake
tower may be classified as:
– Single well or twin well type intake structure
 Types of intake towers
1 Wet intake tower: 2 Dry intake tower
1. It consists a concrete circular • Water is directly drawn into the
shell filled with water up to withdrawal conduit through entry
reservoir level. ports.
2. Water withdraw generally • Due to direct exposure additional
through gravity, may be lifted by buoyant force exert on the
pumps in case of river. structure, hence heavier
3. There are no buoyant force, construction required.
hence no heavier construction • Advantage of this structure is
required water can be withdraw from any
selected level of the reservoir by
opening the port at that level.
Intake tower are huge structure so that at the time of design must consider worst
possible combination of various forces, such as hydrostatic pressures, wind and earth
quake forces, force cause by waves, ice debris etc.
Dry Intake Towers Wet Intake Towers
 Single well Twin well
• It is generally used in • It is used for all kind of river
alluvial river. but specially constructed in
• Water is ponded up by the non-alluvial river.
constructing a weir across
the river or by diversion
head works.
Both types of river intake structure consists of:
(i) Inlet well
(ii) Inlet pipe
(iii) Jack well
Design Considerations:
• Sufficient factor of safety against external forces such as heavy
currents, floating materials, submerged bodies, ice pressure, etc.
• Should have sufficient self weight so that it does not float by up thrust of
water.
 Canal Intake Structures
• In this the intake well is generally located in the bank of the canal, and
water enters the chamber through an inlet pipe, covered with a fine
screen.
• the top of which is generally provided at minimum water level in the
canal, and bottom is about 0.15 m above the canal bed to avoid entry of
bed load.
• This inlet end is of bell mouth shape with perforations of fine screen on its
surface.
• An outlet valve, operating from the top, is provided to control the entry of
water into the outlet pipe.
• The flow velocity through the outlet conduit is generally kept at about 1.5
m/sec, and this helps in determining the area and diameter at the
withdrawal conduit.
Canal Intake Structures
Inlet well or collector well
• It`s shape in a circular or oblong
well.
• Water enters into the well
through the port.
• Ports fitted with vertical iron
bars of 20 mm dia.@ 30 to 50mm
center to center.
• Flow velocity range between 15
to 20 cm/s.
• Ports provides at 2 to 3 levels.
• Inlet should be above the 1 to 3
metre above the bed of river.
Intake pipe
• The intake well connected
to sump or jack well by
intake pipe.
• None pressure pipe used as
an intake pipe.
• Slope should be gentle 1 in
200 or so.
• Dia. Of pipe not less than
45cm.
• Flow velocity does not
exceed @ 1.2m/s
 Jack well
• Generally jack well constructed on high
ground but try to locate close to river, always
higher than HFL.
• Jack well should construct on the ground
which bearing capacity should not less than
450 kN/m2. If not available R.C.C. raft may be
laid at the bottom.
• Diameter of jack well @ 4 to 5 metre.
 Factors Governing Location of Intake
• As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the
cost of conveying water to the city is less.
• The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best
quality water from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment
plant.
• The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of
the point of disposal of wastewater.
• The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if
required at a future date.
• The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even
during the driest period of the year.
• The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should
not get flooded. Moreover, the flood waters should not be concentrated in
the vicinity of the intake.
 Pumping
• A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy.
• It lifts water from a lower to a higher level and delivers it at
high pressure.
• Pumps are employed in water supply projects at various
stages for following purposes:
– To lift raw water from wells.
– To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure.
– To supply pressured water for fire hydrants.
– To boost up pressure in water mains.
– To fill elevated overhead water tanks.
– To back-wash filters.
– To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment.
 Classification of Pumps
• Based on principle of operation, pumps may
be classified as follows:
• Displacement pumps (reciprocating, rotary)
• Velocity pumps (centrifugal, turbine and jet
pumps)
• Buoyancy pumps (air lift pumps)
• Impulse pumps (hydraulic rams)
 Capacity of Pumps
• Work done by the pump,
• H.P.=rQH/75
• where, r= specific weight of water kg/m3, Q= discharge of
pump, m3/s; and H= total head against which pump has to
work.
• H= Hs + Hd + Hf + (losses due to exit, entrance, bends, valves,
and so on)
• where, Hs=suction head,
• Hd = delivery head, and
• Hf = friction loss.
 Conveyance
• There are two stages in the transportation of water:
• Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.
• Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the
distribution system.
• In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping
or by the combined action of both, depending upon the
relative elevations of the treatment plant and the source of
supply.
• In the second stage water transmission may be either by
pumping into an overhead tank and then supplying by gravity
or by pumping directly into the water-main for distribution.
 Free Flow System
• In this system, the surface of water in the
conveying section flows freely due to gravity.
• In such a conduit the hydraulic gradient line
coincide with the water surface and is parallel
to the bed of the conduit. It is often necessary
to construct very long conveying sections, to
suit the slope of the existing ground.
• The sections used for free-flow are: Canals,
flumes, grade aqueducts and grade tunnels.
 Pressure System
• In pressure conduits, which are closed conduits, the water
flows under pressure above the atmospheric pressure.
• The bed or invert of the conduit in pressure flows is thus
independent of the grade of the hydraulic gradient line and
can, therefore, follow the natural available ground surface
thus requiring lesser length of conduit.
• The pressure aqueducts may be in the form of closed pipes or
closed aqueducts and tunnels called pressure aqueducts or
pressure tunnels.
• Due to their circular shapes, every pressure conduit is
generally termed as a pressure pipe.
 Pressure System
Cont…
• When a pressure pipe drops beneath a valley,
stream, or some other depression, it is called
a depressed pipe or an inverted siphon.
• Depending upon the construction material,
the pressure pipes are of following types: Cast
iron, steel, R.C.C, hume steel, vitrified clay,
asbestos cement, wrought iron, copper, brass
and lead, plastic, and glass reinforced plastic
pipes.
 Hydraulic Design
• The design of water supply conduits depends on the
resistance to flow, available pressure or head, and allowable
velocities of flow.
• Generally, Hazen-William's formula for pressure conduits and
Manning's formula for freeflow conduits are used.
• Hazen-William's formula U=0.85 C rH0.63S0.54
• Manning's formula U=1/n rH2/3S1/2
• where, U= velocity, m/s; rH= hydraulic radius,m;
S= slope, C= Hazen-William's coefficient, and
n = Manning's coefficient.
Raw Water Screening Coagulation/ SST
PST
Flocculation

Filtration
Distribution Disinfection

Flow Diagram of Water Treatment Plant

Unit operations in water treatment
1. Storage 8. Rapid sand filtration
2. Pre-Chlorination
3. Aeration 9. Softening
4. Rapid mixing 10. Post-Chlorination
5. Flocculation (Slow
mixing) 11. Demineralization
6. Sedimentation
7. Slow sand filtration
 The types of treatment required for different sources

Source Treatment required

1. Ground water and spring water No treatment or Chlorination
fairly free from contamination
2. Ground water with chemicals, Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
minerals and gases filtration and disinfection
3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs Disinfection
with less amount of pollution
4. Other surface waters such as Complete treatment
rivers, canals and impounded
reservoirs with a considerable
amount of pollution
 The types of treatment required for different sources
and Characteristics of raw water
Source/ Characteristics Treatment required
1 Ground waters has No treatment or plain disinfection
Turbidity below 10 NTU G.W 10
and free from odor and color
2. Surface waters has Storage and plain disinfection
Turbidity below 10 NTU S.W 1 10
and free from odor and color
3. Ground water contains Aeration followed by flocculation (rapid and slow
excessive iron, dissolved mixing), sedimentation, rapid gravity or pressure
carbon dioxide and odorous filtration and disinfection
gases
G.W 3 4 5 8 10
6
 The types of treatment required for different sources
and Characteristics of raw water
Source/ Characteristics Treatment required
4 Surface water with Plain sedimentation followed by slow sand
turbidities not exceeding 50 filtration and disinfection practiced
NTU and where sufficient S.W 6 7 10
area available
5. Highly polluted surface Pre-Chlorination , aeration, rapid mixing,
waters laden with algae or flocculation , sedimentation, rapid sand
other micro organisms filtration and post-chlorination

2 3 4 5 6 8 10
S.W

6 Surface water with low turbidity Rapid sand filtration followed by Flocculation
with alum addition by slow mixing (10 min)
10-15 NTU & TSS 50mg/L

S.W 4 5 8 10
 Functions of Water Treatment Units

Unit treatment Function (removal)

Aeration, chemicals
Colour, Odour, Taste
use
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing
Disinfection
substances
 Aeration
• Aeration removes odor and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen
sulphide and due to algae and related organisms.
• Aeration also oxidise iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen
content in water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes
methane and other flammable gases.
• Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water
escape into atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric
oxygen takes their place in water.
• This process continues until an equilibrium is reached depending on the
partial pressure of each specific gas in the atmosphere.
• Types of Aerators
1 Gravity aerators 2.Fountain aerators 3.Diffused aerators
4.Mechanical aerators.
 Types of Aerators
• Gravity Aerators (Cascades): In gravity aerators, water is
allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is
exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
• Fountain Aerators : These are also known as spray aerators
with special nozzles to produce a fine spray.
• Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36
l/h.
• Nozzle spacing should be such that each m3 of water has
aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
 Types of Aerators
Cont…
• Injection or Diffused Aerators : It consists of a tank with
perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the bottom
to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit.
• The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is within 1.5
times its depth.
• If depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m
depth below water surface.
• Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is
required for 1 litre of water.
• Mechanical Aerators : Mixing paddles as in flocculation are
used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the surface.
 Sedimentation
• Settling
Solid liquid separation
process in which a
suspension is separated into
two phases –
• Clarified supernatant
leaving the top of the
sedimentation tank
(overflow).
• Concentrated sludge leaving
the bottom of the
sedimentation tank
(underflow).
• Purpose of Settling
• To remove coarse dispersed
phase.
• To remove coagulated and
flocculated impurities.
• To remove precipitated
impurities after chemical
treatment.
• To settle the sludge
(biomass) after activated
sludge process / tricking
filters.
 Principle of Settling
• Suspended solids present in water having specific
gravity greater than that of water tend to settle
down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is
retarded by offering storage.
• Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling
tank.
• Theoretical average time for which the water is
detained in the settling tank is called the detention
period.
 Types of Settling
• Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually
without interaction with neighboring particles.
• Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles
to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
• Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles
tends to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in
fixed positions with respect to each other.

• Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so

high that sedimentation can only occur through compaction
of the structure.
 Type I Settling
• Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time.
• Settling velocity remains constant.
• If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it:
(1) force of gravity: Fg=ρpgVp
(2) the buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as: Fb= ρ gVp
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is
exerted and the particle is accelerated in the direction of the force:
Fnet = (ρp- ρ)gVp
• This net force becomes the driving force.
• Where: ρp is the particle density; ρ is the fluid density Vp the particle
volume and g the acceleration of gravity
 Type I Settling
Cont…
• Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous
friction.
• This force, called the drag force, is quantified by:
Fd=CDAp ρ v2/2
CD= drag coefficient.
Ap = projected area of the particle.
v = Linear settling velocity
• Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force
and increases as the square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a
decreasing rate until a steady velocity is reached at a point where the drag
force equals the driving force: (ρp- ρ)gVp = CDAp ρ v2/2
For spherical particles,
Vp= π d3/6 and Ap=πd2/4 Thus, v2= 4g(ρp-ρ)d
3 CD ρ
 Type I Settling
Cont…
• Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow
regimes. For laminar, transition, and turbulent flow, the values of CD
are:
CD = 24 (laminar)
Re
CD= 24 + 3 +0.34 (transition)
Re Re1/2
CD= 0.4 (turbulent)
where Re is the Reynolds number:
• Re= ρvd
μ
Reynolds number less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, while values
greater than 10 indicate turbulent flow. Intermediate values
indicate transitional flow.
 Types of Settling Tanks
• Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or
continuously.
• The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are
those which store water for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest.
• In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced
and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an
intermittent type.
• Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in
plan.
• Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are
generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral
flow.
 Long Rectangular Settling Basin
• Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more
stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier
with this configuration.
• A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging
from 2 to 4 times their width.
• The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge
scraping.
• A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper
continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge
hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.
A long rectangular settling tank can be divided
into four different functional zones:

1. Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly

distributed over the cross section such that the flow
through settling zone follows horizontal path.
2. Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent
conditions.
3. Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and
discharge through outlet weir.
4. Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below
settling zone.
Long Rectangular Settling Basin
 Inlet and Outlet Arrangement
• Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute
the water equally and at uniform velocities.
• A baffle should be constructed across the basin close
to the inlet and should project several feet below the
water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide
uniform flow.
• Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices
shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for
settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting.
 Circular Basins
• Circular settling basins have the same functional zones
as the long rectangular basin, but the flow regime is
different.
• When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow
radially towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of
the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from
the center increases.
• Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as
opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular
tank.
• Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks
are simpler and require less maintenance.
 Design Details
• Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for
coagulated sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 h.
• Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal
flow).
• Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common)
maximum 100 m. Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter
not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
• Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
• Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to
18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water
24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.
• Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
 Sedimentation Tank Design
• Problem: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million litres of
raw water per day. The detention period may be assumed to be 3 hours.
• Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l. Detention period is 3h.
• Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3
• Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.
• Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2
• L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B.
• 3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m
• L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m
• Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 = 24,000 l/d/m2
100
18000 L/d/m2 < 24,000 l/d/m2 < 30,000 L/d/m2
 Coagulation - Flocculation Theory
• General Properties of Colloids
• Colloidal particles are so small that their surface area in
relation to mass is very large.
• Electrical properties: All colloidal particles are electrically
charged.
• If electrodes from a D.C. source are placed in a colloidal
dispersion, the particles migrate towards the pole of opposite
charge.
• Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of
bombardment by molecules of dispersion medium. This
motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert Brown
who first noticed it).
 Coagulation and Flocculation
• Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they
do not settle by gravity and are so small that they pass through the
pores of filtration media.
• To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in
size.
• The aggregation of colloidal particles can be considered as involving
two separate and distinct steps:
– Particle transport to effect interaparticle collision.
– Particle destabilization to permit attachment when contact
occurs.
Transport step is known as flocculation whereas coagulation is
the overall process involving destabilization and transport.
 Flocculation
• Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to
agglomerate destabilized particles into compact, fast
settleable particles (or flocks).
• Flocculation or gentle agitation results from velocity
differences or gradients in the coagulated water, which causes
the fine moving, destabilized particles to come into contact
and become large, readily settleable flocks.
• It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid (or) flash
mix for the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals into
the water.
• Slow mixing is then done, during which the growth of the
flock takes place.
 Types of Flocculation
• Gravitational flocculation: Baffle type mixing basins
are examples of gravitational flocculation.
– Water flows by gravity and baffles are provided in the
basins which induce the required velocity gradients for
achieving floc formation.
• Mechanical flocculation: Mechanical flocculators
consists of revolving paddles with horizontal or
vertical shafts or paddles suspended from horizontal
oscillating beams, moving up and down.
 Coagulation in Water Treatment
• Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) are commonly used as coagulants in
water and wastewater treatment.
• When a salt of Al(III) and Fe(III) is added to water, it
dissociates to yield trivalent ions, which hydrate to form aqua
metal complexes Al(H2O)63+ and Fe(H2O)63+.
• These complexes then pass through a series of hydrolytic
reactions in which H2O molecules in the hydration shell are
replaced by OH- ions to form a variety of soluble species such
as Al(OH)2+ and Fe(OH)2+.
• These products are quite effective as coagulants as they
adsorb very strongly onto the surface of most negative
colloids.
Destabilization using Al(III) and Fe(III)
Salts
• Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6 HCO3- 2 Al(OH)3(s) +
6CO2 +14 H2O + 3 SO42-

• FeCl3 + 3 HCO3- Fe(OH)3(S) +3 CO2 + 3 Cl-

 Jar Test
• The jar test is a common laboratory procedure
used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment.
• This method allows adjustments in pH,
variations in coagulant or polymer dose,
alternating mixing speeds, or testing of
different coagulant or polymer types, on a
small scale in order to predict the functioning
of a large scale treatment operation.
Jar Testing Apparatus
 Jar Test Procedure
• Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water.
• Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for
1 minute.
• The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each
container.
• Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes.
Then measure the final turbidity in each container.
• Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20
minutes.
• This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing
particle collisions which lead to larger flocs.
• Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal
conditions are determined.
• The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and
adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system
 Filtration
• The resultant water after sedimentation will
not be pure, and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it.
• To remove or to reduce the remaining
impurities still further, the water is filtered
through the beds of fine granular material,
such as sand, etc. The process of passing the
water through the beds of such granular
materials is known as Filtration.
 Filtration Mechanisms
• There are four basic filtration mechanisms:
SEDIMENTATION : The mechanism of sedimentation
is due to force of gravity and the associate settling
velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the
streamlines and reach the collector.
INTERCEPTION : Interception of particles is common
for large particles. If a large enough particle follows
the streamline, that lies very close to the media
surface it will hit the media grain and be captured.
 Filtration Mechanisms
• BROWNIAN DIFFUSION : Diffusion towards
media granules occurs for very small particles,
such as viruses. Particles move randomly
about within the fluid, due to thermal
gradients. This mechanism is only important
for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
• INERTIA : Attachment by inertia occurs when
larger particles move fast enough to travel off
their streamlines and bump into media grains.
Particle followed path with different mechanism

Final position
 Filter Materials
• Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media.
• The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called
effective size.
• The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in
mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will
pass.
• The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is
measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient.
• The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio
of the sieve size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of
sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.
 Filter Materials
• Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on
gravel, which permits the filtered water to move
freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water
to move uniformly upwards.
• Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes,
anthrafilt is used as filter media.
• Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of
coal-stone that burns without smoke or flames.
• It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of
filtration.
• Advanced material (New Research)
 Types of Filter
• Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by
gravel.
• They capture particles near the surface of the bed and
are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of
sand that contains the particles.
• Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains
supported by gravel and capture particles throughout the
bed.
• They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed
to 'lift out' the particles.
Isometric View of Rapid Gravity filter
Cross section of Rapid-sand filter
 Multimedia filters:
• They consist of two or more layers of different
granular materials, with different densities. Usually,
anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used.
• The different layers combined may provide more
versatile collection than a single sand layer.
• Because of the differences in densities, the layers
stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.
 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are
removed by a combination of processes:
• Sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical
and bacteriological action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by
mechanical and physical-chemical processes.
• The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic
matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface, which
remains permeable and retains particles even
smaller than the spaces between the sand grains.
 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it
becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-organisms
which break down organic material retained from the water,
converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed
from the raw water as it passes through the filter skin and the
layer of filter bed sand just below.
• The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to
approx 0.3 to 0.4 m below the surface of the filter bed,
gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water
becomes purified and contains less organic material.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• When the micro-organisms become well
established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually
free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
• They are suitable for treating waters with low
colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.
 Slow Sand Filters
vs. Rapid Sand Filters
• Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to
75 cm in depth while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size
and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
• Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4
mm and uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF
the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity
coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
• Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m.
of filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000
L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
• Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand
whereas RSF are quite flexible for meeting reasonable variations
in demand.
 Slow Sand Filters
vs. Rapid Sand Filters Cont..
• Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained
from SSF. However, water may be disinfected slightly to
make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
• Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top
1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF,
sand is agitated and backwashed with or without
compressed air.
• Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial
loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit when cleaning is
required. For RSF 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m
is the final limit when cleaning is required.
 When is Backwashing Needed
• The filter should be backwashed
when the following conditions
have been met:
• The head loss is so high that the
filter no longer produces water
at the desired rate; and/or
• Floc starts to break through the
filter and the turbidity in the
filter effluent increases; and/or
• A filter run reaches a given hour
of operation.
Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity
Filters
• Air Binding : The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the
dissolved air and other gases present in water. The formation of bubbles
takes place which stick to the sand grains. This phenomenon is known as
Air Binding as the air binds the filter and stops its functioning.
• Initially, the loss of head of water percolating through the filter is generally
very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more and
more impurities get trapped into it.
• A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the
filter media exceeds the static head of water above the and bed.( Most of
this resistance is offered by the top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom
sand acts like a vacuum, and water is sucked through the filter media
rather than getting filtered through it).
• To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss
exceeds the optimum allowable value.
 Troubles
Cont..
• Formation of Mud Balls :
– The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand
surface to form a dense mat.
– During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the
sand bed and stick to the sand grains and other arrested
impurities, thereby forming mud balls.
• Cracking of Filters :
– The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks
and causes the development of shrinkage cracks in the sand
bed.
– With the use of filter, the loss of head and, therefore, pressure
on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes on
widening these cracks
 Remedial Measures to Prevent Cracking of
Filters and Formation of Mud Balls
• Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and
washing off the particles.
• Washing the filter with a solution of caustic
soda.
• Removing, cleaning and replacing the
damaged filter sand.
 Standard design practice of Rapid
Sand filter:
• Maximum length of lateral = not less than 60 times
its diameter.
• Spacing of holes = 6 mm holes at 7.5 cm c/c or 13 at
15 c/c.
• C.S area of lateral = not less than 2 times area of
perforations.
• C.S area of manifold = 2 times total area of laterals.
Maximum loss of head = 2 to 5 m.
• Spacing of laterals = 15 to 30 cm c/c.
 Standard design
Cont..
• Pressure of wash water at perforations = not
greater than 1.05 kg/cm2.
• Velocity of flow in lateral = 2 m/s.
• Velocity of flow in manifold = 2.25 m/s.
• Velocity of flow in manifold for wash water=
1.8 to 2.5 m/s.
• Velocity of rising wash water= 0.5 to 1.0
m/min.
 Standard design
Cont..
• Amount of wash water = 0.2 to 0.4% of total
filtered water.
• Time of backwashing = 10 to 15 min.
• Head of water over the filter = 1.5 to 2.5 m.
Free board = 60 cm.
• Bottom slope = 1 to 60 towards manifold.
Q = (1.71 x b x h3/2)
• where Q is in m3/s, b is in m, h is in m.
• L:B = 1.25 to 1.33:1 .
 Disinfection
• Def.n :The filtered water may normally contain some harmful
disease producing bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed
in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of
killing these bacteria is known as Disinfection or Sterilization.
• Disinfection Kinetics
– When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of
disinfectant, the reduction in microorganisms follows a first-order
reaction.
dN/dt=-kN ; N=N0e-kt
• This equation is known as Chick’s Law:-
N = number of microorganism
N0 = Initial number of microorganism
k = disinfection constant
t = contact time
 Methods of Disinfection
• Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a
long time
• Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for
softening.
• But if excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill the bacteria
also.
• When Lime is added it rais the pH value of water making it extremely
alkaline.
• This extreme alkalinity has been found detrimental to the survival of
bacteria. This method needs the removal of excess lime from the water
before it can be supplied to the general public.
• Drawback: Treatment like recarbonation for lime removal should be used
after disinfection.
 Methods of Disinfection
Cont..
• Treament with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down
into normal oxygen, and releases nascent oxygen.
• The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidising agent and
removes the organic matter as well as the bacteria
from the water.
• Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is
explained by the recent theory of Enzymatic
hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters
the cell walls of bacteria and kill the enzymes which
are essential for the metabolic processes of living
organisms.
 Chlorine Chemistry
• Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It
is most often added as a gas, Cl2(g). However, it also
can be added as a salt, such as sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) or bleach. Chlorine gas dissolves in water
following Henry's Law.
Cl2(g) Cl2(aq)

Once dissolved, the following reaction occurs

forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl):
Cl2(aq)+H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
 Chlorine Chemistry
• Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form
hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
HOCl OCl- + H+
• All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x
35.45 = 70.9 g/mol)
• Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion compose what is
called the free chlorine residual.
• These free chlorine compounds can react with many organic
and inorganic compounds to form chlorinated compounds.
• If the products of these reactions posses oxidizing potential,
they are considered the combined chlorine residual.
 Chlorine Chemistry
• A common compound in drinking water systems that reacts
with chlorine to form combined residual is ammonia.
• Reactions between ammonia and chlorine form chloramines,
which is mainly monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine
(NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3) .
• Many drinking water utilities use monochloramine as a
disinfectant.
• If excess free chlorine exits then once all ammonia nitrogen
has been converted to monochloramine so that chloramine
species will oxidized such reaction is known as breakpoint
reactions.
 Chlorine Chemistry
• The overall reactions of free chlorine and
nitrogen can be represented by two simplified
reactions as follows:
• Monochloramine Formation Reaction. This
reaction occurs rapidly when ammonia
nitrogen is combined with free chlorine up to
a molar ratio of 1:1.
HOCl +NH3 NH2Cl + H2O
 Chlorine Chemistry
• Breakpoint Reaction:
When excess free
chlorine is added beyond
the 1:1 initial molar ratio,
monochloramine is
removed as follows:
2NH2Cl + HOCl N2(g)+
3H++ 3Cl-+ H2O
 Types of chlorination
1. Plain chlorination
2. Pre-chlorination
3. Post-chlorination
4. Double-chlorination
5. Break point chlorination
6. Super chlorination
7. Dechlorination
 Principle of Plant Layout
• The selection of site for treatment plant based on features as
character, topography, and shoreline.
• The following principles are important to consider:
• A site on a side-hill can facilitate gravity flow that will reduce
pumping requirements and locate normal sequence of units
without excessive excavation or fill.
• When landscaping is utilized it should reflect the character of
the surrounding area.
• Site development should alter existing naturally stabilized site
contours and drainage as little as possible.
• The developed site should be compatible with the existing
land uses and the comprehensive development plan.
 Water Distribution Systems
• Requirements of Good Distribution System
• Water quality should not get deteriorated in
the distribution pipes.
• It should be capable of supplying water at all
the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
• It should be capable of supplying the requisite
amount of water during fire fighting.
 Requirements of Good Distribution
System Cont..
• The layout should be such that no consumer
would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
• All the distribution pipes should be preferably
laid one metre away or above the sewer lines.
• It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses
due to leakage to the minimum.
• There are no chance of any contamination.
 Layouts of Distribution Network
• The distribution pipes are generally laid below
the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads.
• We can also develop permanent duct along
the road.
• There are, in general, four different types of
pipe networks are:
 Dead End System
• It is suitable for old towns and
cities having no definite
pattern of roads.
• Advantages:
– Relatively cheap.
– Determination of discharges
and pressure easier due to
less number of valves.
• Disadvantages
– Due to many dead ends,
stagnation of water
occurs in pipes.
 Grid Iron System
• It is suitable for cities with rectangular
layout, where the water mains and
branches are laid in rectangles.
• Advantages:
– Water is kept in good circulation
due to the absence of dead ends.
– In the cases of a breakdown in
some section, water is available
from some other direction.
• Disadvantages
– Exact calculation of sizes of pipes
is not possible due to provision of
valves on all branches.
 Ring System
• The supply main is laid all along
the peripheral roads and sub
mains branch out from the mains.
• Thus, this system also follows
the grid iron system with the flow
pattern similar in character
to that of dead end system.
• So, determination of the size
of pipes is easy.
• Advantages:
• Water can be supplied to any
point from at least two
directions.
 Radial System
• The area is divided into
different zones.
• The water is pumped into
the distribution reservoir
kept in the middle of each
zone and the supply pipes
are laid radially ending
towards the periphery.
Advantages:
• It gives quick service.
• Calculation of pipe sizes is
easy
 Pipe Network Analysis
• In any pipe network, the following two conditions
must be satisfied:
• The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a
closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can be no
discontinuity in pressure.
• The flow entering a junction must be equal to the
flow leaving that junction; i.e. the law of continuity
must be satisfied.
• The widely used method of pipe network analysis
is the Hardy-Cross method