Defects in Materials

Origin , Nature & Significance

 Scope
• Introduction
• Discontinuities in materials: Origin & Nature
Inherent - Processing - Service

• Assessment of Flaw significance

• Flaw Acceptance Standards
– Workmanship vs Fitness – for – Purpose

• NDT methods for characterizing severe flaws

• Case Studies
• Conclusion
 Interruption in Normal Physical Structure/metallurgical
- Keyways, Grooves, Holes present by design
Discontinuity

Discontinuity with undesirable

Flaw connotation
Defect - Slag, Porosity, Lamination

Flaw which makes component unfit for service

- Cracks, Lack of Fusion in Weld
 Living with Flaws
A: Flaws which will not grow at all during service

B: Flaw which will not grow to critical size during lifetime

C: Flaw which will grow to critical size in next few inspection intervals

D: Flaw size will grow to critical size before next inspection

Flaw A & B: Not significant Role of NDT

Characterization & Classification of Flaws
Flaw C & D: Significant
Safety: C & D not placed as A & B
Economy: A & B not placed as C & D
 Components of Flaw Characterization:

Detection

Nature Flaw Characteristics Location

Flaw Geometry
Size, Shape , Orientation
 Metallurgical Characteristics Controlling
Material Properties

Chemical Composition

Material Dislocation
Microstructure Properties Density

Crystal Structure

Heat Treatment: Commonly employed Processing

Treatment to modify Metallurgical Characteristics
 Classification of Engineering Products
Based on Manufacturing Route

I Castings
Melting - Pouring into Mould Cavity - Solidification

II Powder Metallurgy Products

Powder Preparation - Pressing into Mould Cavity -
Sintering

III Wrought Products

Cast ingot - Mechanical Working - Machining -
Welding - Heat Treatment
 Defects in Materials
Origin & Characteristics
I Inherent Discontinuities
* Melting, Casting & Solidification
II Processing Discontinuities
* Mechanical Working (Hot/Cold)
- Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Forming
* Welding
* Heat Treatment
III Service Discontinuities
* Fatigue, SCC, Creep
Discontinuities are not necessarily Defects
 Casting vs. Wrought Products

* Physical Discontinuities
* Chemical Inhomogeneities
* Microstructural Non uniformities

Lower Quality Factor or Higher Safety Factor for Castings as

compared to Wrought Products

Weld ~ Mini Casting

 Quality Requirements
Metallurgical NDT Dimensional

• Chemical Freedom from Stress

Composition Unacceptable
Flaws affecting - Magnitude
• Microstructure Structural Integrity

- Concentration
• Mechanical
Properties
- Distribution
• Corrosion
Properties
 Defects in Materials
Origin, Nature & Significance

• Casting
• Forging
• Rolling
• Heat Treatment
• Welding
 Casting Defects
• International Committee of Foundry Technical Association

• 111 casting defects in 7 categories

- Metallic Projections
- Cavities
- Discontinuities
- Defects (Surface)
- Incomplete Casting
- Incorrect Dimensions
- Inclusion or Structural Anomalies
 Defects in Casting

* Gas Defects – Blow Holes, Porosities

* Shrinkage Cavity – Piping

* Non-Metallic Inclusion – Exogenous, Indigenous

* Chemical Inhomogeneities – Segregation

* Contraction Defects (stress) – Hot Tears, Cold Cracks

* Shaping Faults – Misrun, Cold Shuts

Defects in Ingots
 Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
• A depression or an internal
void in a casting that results
from volume contraction
during solidification

Level A Superheated liquid metal filled to the top pf the mould

Level B Liquid shrinks on cooling to freezing temperature
Area C During L to S contraction, further redn. in volume
Localized near top of the ingot (Freezes last)
Distance D Solid metal pulls away from mould wall as it contracts
 Casting Defects: Blow Holes
• Balloon shaped cavities at or below the surface of the casting

• Cause
- High moisture or organic content of sand mould gives excessive
steam or CO
- Low permeability of mould due to excess clay content or
excessive ramming
 Casting Defects: Porosity
• Very small gas holes uniformly dispersed through
the entire casting SL

SS
• Gas solubility more in liquid than solid Gas Liquid
Solubility Solid.
• Microporosity: Gas trapped within growing
M.P.
dendrites

• To reduce gas in the liquid metal

- Keep minimum superheat
- Vacuum melting or Vacuum degassing
- Inert gas bubbling
 Inclusions
• Non-metallic or metallic phases in a metallic matrix

Two Types

Exogenous Indigenous
- Derived from external causes - Inherent in molten metal
treatment
- Slag, entrapped mould material
and refractory - Sulphides, Nitrides, Oxides
(Al2O3, SiO2)
- Macroscopic
- Microscopic
- Non-uniform distribution
- Uniformly distribution

Iron Making: Reduction Process, Fe2O3 CO/C Fe

Steel Making: Oxidation – C,S, P etc
High O in steel: Porosity, De-oxidation by Al, Si: Inclusions (Al2O3, SiO2)
 Inclusion Rating in Steel
• Four types of non-metallic inclusions: Thin & Heavy

• Type A: Sulphide

• Type B: Alumina

• Type C: Silicate

• Type D: Globular Oxide

 Casting Defects: Hot Tears
• Caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections of a
casting as the metal cools
 Casting Defects: Cold Shuts
• Forms when molten metal meets the already solidified or relatively
cold metal

• Can also be formed by lack of fusion between the two intercepting

surfaces of molten metal at different temperatures
 Mechanical Working
• Involves Plastic Deformation: Change in shape and size but no volume
change

• Hot working (Temp > Tre) & Cold Working (Temp < Tre)

Process Hot Working Cold Working

Forging √
Rolling √ √
Extrusion √ √
Drawing √

• Tungsten – Working at 1000 C: Cold Working

• Lead – Working at RT: Hot Working
 Forging Defects

• Bursts

• Laps

• Hydrogen Flakes

• Flow Lines
 Forging Defects: Burst
• Rupture caused by forging at improper temperature

• Can be internal or external

 Forging Defects: Lap
• It is a discontinuity caused by folding of metal in a thin plate on the
surface of the forging

• Improper matching of mating surfaces of the two forging dies

 Forging Defects: Hydrogen Flakes
• Randomly oriented internal thermal cracks in steel resulting
from critical combination of stress and hydrogen content

• On an etched surface, they appear as short discontinuous

cracks
 Forging Defects: Improper Flow Lines
• Patterns that reveal how the grain structure follows the direction of
working in forging
• Flow lines refer to direction of inclusion deformation during forging.
Flow lines should not cut the surface to avoid failures due to high
HCF.
• These are revealed macro-etching
• Optimizing grain flow orientation maximizes mech. properties
 Rolling Defects

• Laminations

• Stringers

• Seams
 Rolling Defects: Laminations
• Defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the
worked surface of the metal

• May be a result of pipe, blister, seams, inclusions or segregations

elongated and made directional by working
 Rolling Defects: Stringers
• Longer and thinner configuration of non-metallic inclusions aligned in
the direction of working

• Commonly the term is associated with oxide or sulphide inclusions in

metals
 Rolling Defects: Seams
• Un-welded fold or lap that appears as a crack

• Results from a defect obtained in casting or working

• Always open to surface

 Heat Treatment
• Heating and Cooling operations applied to metals and alloys in solid
state to obtain desired properties

• Purpose
- Mechanical properties: Strength Ductility Toughness
- Corrosion Resistance
- Dimensional Stability: Residual stress

S
H C
• Heat Treatment Cycle: Min. Three Steps

• Metallurgical characteristics controlling properties

- Chemical Composition - Dislocation Density
- Microstructure - Texture
 Heat Treatment of Steels
• Annealing

• Normalizing

• Hardening

• Tempering

• Martempering

• Austempering
 Cold Work – Anneal Cycle

Cold Working Recovery Recrystallization Grain Growth

 Defects in Heat Treatment
• Coarse Grain

• Quench Cracks

• Undesirable phase: Sensitization in Austenitic SS

• Embrittlement: Temper Embrittlement & Thermal Ageing

Embrittlement
 Quench Cracks
• Cracks formed in steel as a result of tensile stresses produced during
hardening HT (Austenite to Martensite Transformation)

Prevention: Increase hardenibility by alloying

Adopt Martempering or Austempering heat treatment
 Grain Size
• N = 2 n-1 , N: number of grains in an area of in2 at 100 X
n: ASTM grain size number

ASTM GS No. Grain Size (μm)

2 160 Coarse
4 80
5 56
6 40
Fine
8 20

• Effect of Grain Size on Material Property

- Hall-Petch Equation: σy = σi + k d -1/2
- Cottrell Equation: σf.K.d1/2 = β. μ. γ
- Grain size ………. Strength Toughness DBTT
 Sensitization in Austenitic Stainless Steels
• Sensitization refers to Chromium Carbide precipitation with
concomitant depletion of Cr to less than 12% making Austenitic
Stainless Steel susceptible to IGC/IGSCC attack

• Sensitization is likely during Solution HT or Welding when SS is

exposed to 450 – 800oC
TTS Diagram

Cr < 12%
Cr23C6 Sensitized
(95% Cr) T
Matrix Cr ≈ 18% Non-sensitized

t
 Intergranular Attack (IGC) attack in
Austenitic Stainless Steels
• IGC attack refers to localized
corrosion along the grain SS 304 SS 321
boundaries
HAZ HAZ
• Sensitized stainless steel prone to
IGC/IGSCC attack when exposed to
corrosive environment

• ASTM Standard A262

Practice A to Practice E for
detecting IGC susceptibility

• Severity of IGC attack expressed as

depth of IGC
 Defects in Fusion Welds
• IIW Atlas: 83 weld discontinuities

• 6 Broad classes

- Cracks
- Cavities
- Solid Inclusions
- Lack of fusion & Penetration
- Imperfect Shape
- Miscellaneous
Significance of Flaws
• Flaw type vs. Severity

• Critical flaw size

• Flaw location vs. Severity

• Flaw tolerance of materials

• Interaction between adjacent flaws

• NDT methods for detecting severe flaws

• Basis of flaw acceptance in codes

 Types of Flaws:
• Planar Flaws (2D)
– Lack of Fusion , Cracks

• Volumetric Flaws (3D)

– Porosity , Inclusions
 Ductile vs Brittle Fracture

Notched
Plastic Constraint Factor
flow stress
q=
Strength Un-notched
σf flow stress
BF
DF q.σo
σo
T.T T.TN Temperature

Temperature

Loading Rate
Brittle
Flow Stress
Fracture
Triaxial Stress

Neutron Irradiation
 Effects of Notch:
• Notch increases tendency to brittle fracture
– By producing high local stress
– By introducing triaxial tensile stress
– By producing high local strain rate
– By producing high local strain hardening & cracking

• Notch: Definite depth & root radius

vs
• Crack: Only depth & vanishingly small radius
 Critical Flaw Size:
• Stress Concentration Factor (SCF)
σmax = σ nom [1+2 sqrt.(D/ρ)]
ρ 0, σmax Infinity
• Stress Intensity Factor (SIF: KI )
KI = σ . sqrt(πa)
• Critical SIF= Fracture Toughness (KIC)

• When KI > KIC Catastrophic Brittle Fracture

 Fracture Toughness & Allowable Flaw Size

Stress
σ Fracture Toughness KIC

ac Flaw Size

KIC = σ x (П . a)1/2

Material Property Stress Flaw Size

 Significance of Flaws in Performance of
Engineering Components

Stress
σ KIC

aa ac Flaw Size

Designer needs an assurance that at no stage during the service life of

component there is any flaw of the order of ac

Allowable flaw size aa with adequate safety margin

Role of NDT is to detect flaw of size aa

 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Location Surface Flaw

Sub-surface Flaw

• Surface flaw more severe as compared to sub-surface flaw because of

higher stress intensity associated with it
• Code provides guidelines on classification of flaw in to surface or sub-
surface, if it lies just below the surface of the component
 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Size KIC = σ . (π. a) 1/2

Surface Flaw
a
2a
Sub-surface Flaw

• Flaw size should never exceed the critical flaw size decided by the
operating stress & fracture toughness, with adequate safety margin
• It refers to through wall dimension & length for crack like defects and area
for laminations
• Most important flaw characteristics and also most difficult to predict
accurately by conventional NDT methods
 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Orientation
Hoop Stress = PD / 2.T
Axial Stress = PD / 4.T

• Flaw perpendicular to maximum tensile stress more severe than the

one oriented parallel to it
• For internally pressurized pipe, axial flaw more severe than
circumferential flaw
 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Shape

• Flaws with sharp tip like crack more severe than flaws with smooth
surface like porosity

• Small root radius leads to higher stress intensity

 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Proximity

• If two flaws are very close, they influence the stress intensity
associated with each other
• Two flaws shall be separated by the length of the longest flaws, or
else they shall be considered together as a singe flaw including
the sound region in between
 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Nature

• Weld Flaw
- Operator: Porosity, lack of fusion, slag inclusion, undercut
- Metallurgical origin: Cold crack, Hot crack, laminar tearing
• Planar or Volumetric Flaw
• Planar flaw more severe than volumetric flaw
 Flaw Tolerance of Materials

KIC KIC’ KIC’ KIC

>
Stress
σ

aC aC’
Flaw Size

• FCC Crystal structure and fine grain size makes material

more tolerant to flaws
• Effect of welding and environment needs consideration
 Strengthening Mechanisms
• Solid Solution Hardening
- Substitutional : σ α √Cs
- Interstitial : σ α √Ci

• Grain Refinement : σy = σi + k d -1/2

• Precipitation Hardening : τ = Gb / l

• Composite : σc = σfVf + (1 – Vf) σm

• Strength Ductility Toughness Flaw Tolerance

• Fine grain size: Strength Toughness

NDT Methods for Characterizing Severe Flaws
 Important Flaw Characteristics for
Fitness-For-Service Assessment
Location • Surface or Sub-surface

Size • Length/ Area/ Though-thickness dimension

Orientation • Flaw orientation w.r.t. Principal Stress

Shape • Smooth or Irregular or Sharp

Proximity • Proximity of a flaw to other flaw(s)

Nature • Planar Flaws severe than Volumetric

A good NDT should have high reliability for harmful flaws

and provide maximum information on above flaw characteristics
 NDT Methods for different Products
Product Surface Volumetric

Casting LPT / MPT RT

Forging LPT / MPT UT

Plates - UT

Tubes - ECT / UT

Welds LPT / MPT RT / UT

 Radiography vs Ultrasonic Testing
Characteristics RT UT

Presence Miss Planar Flaws Miss Globular Flaws

(even large) (small)
Location (lateral) Very Good Good Enough
Location (Depth) No Information Good Enough
Size, Shape & Very Good Very Poor
Orientation
Type Very Good Very Poor
 Leak Before Break

KIC = σ x √ π.ac

ac

ac: Critical crack length

al : Crack length at leakage
al

If al < ac , then Leak Before Break Criteria is satisfied

If al > ac , then Break Before Leak
 Engineering Critical Assessment:
ECA- Codes and Guides
• API RP 579 (2000): Recommended Practice for Fitness-for
Service Assessment

• BS 7910 (1999): Guidance on Methods for Assessing the

acceptability of flaws in metallic structure

• IIW / IIS-SST-1957-90: IIW Guidance on Assessment of

Fitness-for-purpose of welded structure

• ASME B&PV Code Sec. XI: In-service Inspection of Nuclear

Components
Stress Analysis API RP 579 Assessment Approach
Flaw Size SIF KI

KMAT
Kr = KI / KMAT

Flaw Size Reference Lr = σref / σYS

Stress σref σYS

Stress Analysis
 Basis of Flaw Acceptance
Standard in Codes
• Good Workmanship

• Proven Service Experience

• Capability of NDT Method

(Radiography)
Radiographic Examination of Welded Joints
Unacceptable Indications

• Crack or incomplete fusion or penetration

• Slag inclusion of length greater than

– ¼ “ for t up to ¾ “
– 1/3 t for t from ¾” to 2-1/4”
– ¾” for t over 2-1/4”

• Rounded Indications of diameter greater than

- ¼ t or 5/32” (whichever is smaller) for t < 2”
- 3/8” for t > 2”
 Economic Consequences of Arbitrary
Acceptance Standards
• Alyeska Pipeline

• Audit of Radiographs: 4000 defects

• Cost of repair: $ 52 M

• One repair of weld in a river crossing: $ 2.5 M

• 3 such defects accepted without repair

• Analysis shoed none of the 4000 defects was affecting integrity

based on FFS
 A survey of Repairs (UK) on welds of
Pressure Vessel
• 84% for Slag Inclusions

• 3% for Porosity

• 13% for Planar Defects

• Repair welds are made under conditions of high restraint and

there is a risk that a harmless, but readily detectable defect,
such as slag inclusion, will be replaced by a potential harmful
crack, which is less easy to detect
 Limitations of Codes
• Specified Limits of defect size: Arbitrary

• Material’s Flaw Tolerance: Not Considered

• Defect Location vs. Severity: Not Considered

• Different NDT Methods during different stages of inspection

- RT during fabrication (IMI)

- UT during PSI and ISI

 Two-Tier Approach for
Flaw Acceptance
Workmanship Standard (aw) Fitness-for- Service (FFS)
Standard (af)
• Existing Std in code • Based on Fracture Mech.

• Quality Control Purpose • For Repair/Reject

Assessment

• Flaw < aw – Accept

• Flaw < af – Accept

• Flaw > aw – Assess for FFS

• Flaw > af – Repair or Reject
Case Studies
Spiral Cracks
 Failure of Rocket Motor Casing
during Hydro Test

• Material : Maraging Steel (Grade 250)

• Dimension : 6.6 mm dia. X 1.25 cm wt
• Proof Pressure : 63.4 Kg/cm2
• Failure Pressure : 38 Kg/cm2
• Yield Strength : 16800 Kg/cm2
• Membrane Stress at Failure : 7000 Kg/cm2
» Failure Originated in a weld defect
 Failed rocket motor casing pieces
laid out in proper relation to each other:
 Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential
Weld of Pressure Vessel
• Material : Low Alloy Steel (125 mm thick)

• Tests:

Mechanical Properties (TT & IT), Satisfactory

Radiography: Using 6 MeV LINAC – 2% sensitivity, satisfactory

Hydro Test: 10 C to 1.5 times designed stress, satisfactory

 Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential
Weld of Pressure Vessel
• UT for generating base-line data for ISI
185 mm long and 0.3-2mm wide defect at an angle to and 3
mm below the outer surface in circumferential weld

• Defect: Slag entrapment, treated as crack for Frac. Mech Ass.

• For Design and Proof Stress Conditions Safety Factor of more

than 3 available, Defect accepted for service
Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential
Weld of Pressure Vessel
Sensitization Induced Corrosion Failures
Failure of Stainless Steel Equipment
(685 cases, DU PONT, 1968-1971)

Mechanical (44.8%) Corrosion (55.2%)

• SCC 13.1%
• Pitting 7.9%
• IGC 5.6%
• General 15.2%
• Others 13.4%
 Oxalic Acid Etch Test: Practice A
• Screening Test
• Specimen is electro-etched for 1,5 min at 1A/cm2
• Microscopic examination

Step

Dual

Ditch
Sensitization Induced Corrosion Failures: IGSCC
 Structural Integrity
Flaw Characteristics Location, Nature, Geometry

Size, Shape, Orientation

Stress
Material Properties
Residual & Applied
Microstructure & Mechanical Prop.
Application of NDT during Component’s Lifetime

Cradle

In-Manufacture Inspection (IMI)

- To detect processing discontinuities

Pre-Service Inspection (PSI)

- To collect base line data for future inspections

In-Service Inspection (ISI)

- To monitor growth of existing flaws and initiation
and growth of service-induced flaws

Grave
 Engineering Critical
Material Prop.
- YS, KIC Assessment

Structural
Integrity
Capability of Effectiveness of
Flaw Characteristics Stress Equipments Procedure
- Type - Applied
- Residual NDT Results
- Location
- Geometry
(size, shape, orient.)

Competence
of Operators
 Importance of Basic Metallurgy for
NDT Professionals
• No engineering structure is free from flaws. Flaw tolerance
depends on metallurgical characteristics

• Flaw characteristics (Location, Size, Shape, Orientation &

Nature depends on nature of Material Processing

• Knowing Flaw Characteristics helps in

- Selection of appropriate NDT method
- Selection of test parameters
- Interpretation of Relevant / False indications
 Misconceptions regarding NDT
No defects found & reported
Means –No defects in the component
Defects measured as 5mm means that
defect actually is 5mm
If NDT reports defect growth or non-
growth then this is actually the case
100% Inspection Coverage
Hard copy results can’t lie
No NDT technique capable of
detecting all defects
(Uncertainty in detection)
Uncertainty in Defect sizing by NDT
Comparison of two sizing has their
own errors
Not necessarily 100% of component
inspected
Hard copy results only as good as
tech. & data used to produce them.

NDT as per National /Int. standard always Standards only relevant to specific
appropriate. circumstances & include knowledge at
the time of development.NDT reqs. need
to be checked against the Std. to see its
relevance to particular situation.