Prince Louis-Victor de

Broglie of the French

Academy, Permanent
Secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, and Professor at
the Faculty of Sciences at
Paris University, was born at
Dieppe (Seine Inférieure) on
15th August, 1892, the son
of Victor, Duc de Broglie and
Pauline d'Armaillé. After
studying at the Lycée Janson
of Sailly, he passed his
school-leaving certificate in
1909. He applied himself
first to literary studies and
took his degree in history in
LouisdeBroglie 1910.
 Between 1930 and 1950,
Louis de Broglie's work has
been chiefly devoted to the
study of the various
extensions of wave
mechanics: Dirac's electron
theory, the new theory of
light, the general theory of
spin particles, applications
of wave mechanics to
nuclear physics, etc. He has
published numerous notes
and several papers on this
subject, and is the author of
more than twenty-five books
on the fields of his particular
interests.
LouisdeBroglie
 Since 1951, together with
young colleagues, Louis de
Broglie has resumed the
study of an attempt which he
made in 1927 under the
name of the theory of the
double solution to give a
causal interpretation to wave
mechanics in the classical
terms of space and time, an
attempt which he had then
abandoned in the face of the
almost universal adherence
of physicists to the purely
probabilistic interpretation
of Born, Bohr,
and Heisenberg.
LouisdeBroglie
 Professor de Broglie's most important
publications are:
Recherches sur la théorie des
quanta (Researches on the quantum
theory), Thesis Paris, 1924.
Ondes et mouvements (Waves and
motions), Gauthier-Villars, Paris,
1926.
Rapport au 5e Conseil de Physique
Solvay, Brussels, 1927.
La mécanique ondulatoire (Wave
mechanics), Gauthier-Villars, Paris,
1928.
Une tentative d'interprétation causale
et non linéaire de la mécanique
ondulatoire: la théorie de la double
solution , Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1956.

LouisdeBroglie
 English translation: Non-linear Wave
Mechanics: A Causal Interpretation ,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1960.
Introduction à la nouvelle théorie des
particules de M. Jean-Pierre Vigier et
de ses collaborateurs , Gauthier-
Villars, Paris, 1961.
English translation: Introduction to the
Vigier Theory of elementary particles,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1963.
Étude critique des bases de
l'interprétation actuelle de la
mécanique ondulatoire , Gauthier-
Villars, Paris, 1963.
English translation: The Current
Interpretation of Wave Mechanics: A
Critical Study, Elsevier, Amsterdam,
1964.
LouisdeBroglie
 Linus Carl Pauling was
born in Portland, Oregon,
on 28th February, 1901,
the son of a druggist,
Herman Henry William
Pauling, who, though born
in Missouri, was of
German descent, and his
wife, Lucy Isabelle Darling,
born in Oregon of
English-Scottish ancestry.

LinusPauling
 During the years 1919-1920
he served as a full-time
teacher of quantitative
analysis in the State College,
after which he was
appointed a Teaching Fellow
in Chemistry in the
California Institute of
Technology and was a
graduate student there from
1922 to 1925, working
under Professor Roscoe G.
Dickinson and Richard C.
Tolman. In 1925 he was
awarded the Ph.D. (summa
cum laude) in chemistry,
with minors in physics and
LinusPauling mathematics.
 Since his appointment to the
Staff of California Institute of
Technology, Professor
Pauling was elected Research
Associate in 1925; National
Research Fellow in
Chemistry, 1925-1926;
Fellow of the John Simon
Guggenheim Memorial
Foundation, 1926-1927
(through this last he worked
in European Universities with
Sommerfeld, Schrödinger,
and Bohr); Assistant
Professor of Chemistry,
1927-1929; Associate
Professor, 1929-1931;
LinusPauling
 Professor, 1931, when he
was the first recipient of
the American Chemical
Society Award in Pure
Chemistry - the Langmuir
Prize - and Chairman of
the Division of Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering,
and Director of the Gates
and Crellin laboratories of
Chemistry, 1936-1958. In
1963, he was awarded
LinusPauling the Nobel Peace Prize
 The subjects of the papers he
published reflect his great
scientific versatility: about 350
publications in the fields of
experimental determination of the
structure of crystals by the
diffraction of X-rays and the
interpretation of these structures
in terms of the radii and other
properties of atoms; the
application of quantum mechanics
to physical and chemical
problems, including dielectric
constants, X-ray doublets,
momentum distribution of
electrons in atoms, rotational
motion of molecules in crystals,
Van der Waals forces, etc.; the
structure of metals and
intermetallic compounds,

LinusPauling
 the theory of ferromagnetism; the
nature of the chemical bond,
including the resonance
phenomenon in chemistry; the
experimental determination of the
structure of gas molecules by the
diffraction of electrons; the
structure of proteins; the structure
of antibodies and the nature of
serological reactions; the structure
and properties of hemoglobin and
related substances; abnormal
hemoglobin molecules in relation
to the hereditary hemolytic
anemias; the molecular theory of
general anesthesia; an instrument
for determining the partial
pressure of oxygen in a gas; and
other subjects.
LinusPauling
 It was also his most fruitful
He wasbeing
period, a highly gifted
actively
engaged
It
mancame
Erwin asinaa
with aresult
Schrödingervariety
broad of of
his
was
subjects of
dissatisfactiontheoretical
with having
the
education.
born on After
August
physics. His papers at that12,
quantum
time dealt condition
with in Bohr's
specific heats
finished
1887, in his
Vienna,chemistry
the
orbit theory
of solids, withand his beliefof
problems
studies,
only child hespectra
thermodynamics
that atomic ofdevoted
Rudolf
(heshould
was
himself
greatly
Schrödinger,for years
really beinterested
determinedwho in to
was
by
Boltzmann's probability
Italian
some
married painting.
theory)kind
and After of
toofofaeigenvalue
daughter
atomic
problem.
this he in
spectra;
Alexander For
took this
up work
addition,
Bauer, he he
botany,
his
indulged
shared
which in physiological
with
resultedDirac in theaNobel
Professor
studies of Chemistry
Prize forof1933.
colour. His great
series of Schrödinger's
papers College
at the Technical
discovery, on plant
wave equation, was made at
phylogeny.
of Vienna.
the end of this epoch-during
ErwinSchrodinger the first half of 1926.
 Werner Heisenberg was born
on 5th December, 1901, at
Würzburg. He was the son of
Dr. August Heisenberg and his
wife Annie Wecklein. His father
later became Professor of the
Middle and Modern Greek
languages in the University of
Munich. It was probably due to
his influence that Heisenberg
remarked, when the Japanese
physicist Yukawa discovered
the particle now known as the
meson and the term
"mesotron" was proposed for it,
that the Greek word "mesos"
has no "tr" in it, with the result
that the name "mesotron" was
changed to "meson".
WernerHeisenberg
 From 1924 until 1925
he worked, with a
Rockefeller Grant,
with Niels Bohr, at the
University of
Copenhagen, returning
for the summer of 1925
to Göttingen.

WernerHeisenberg
 Heisenberg's name will
always be associated with
his theory of quantum
mechanics, published in
1925, when he was only
23 years old. For this
theory and the
applications of it which
resulted especially in the
discovery of allotropic
forms of hydrogen,
Heisenberg was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Physics
for 1932.
WernerHeisenberg
 Later Heisenberg stated
his famous principle of
uncertainty , which lays it
down that the
determination of the
position and momentum
of a mobile particle
necessarily contains errors
the product of which
cannot be less than the
quantum constant h and
that, although these errors
are negligible on the
human scale, they cannot
be ignored in studies of
the atom.
WernerHeisenberg
 One of his hobbies is
classical music: he is a
distinguished pianist. In
1937 Heisenberg
married Elisabeth
Schumacher. They have
seven children, and live
in Munich.

WernerHeisenberg
 Dirac's publications
include the
books Quantum Theory
of the Electron (1928)
and The Principles of
Quantum
Mechanics (1930; 3rd
ed. 1947).

PaulA.M.Dirac
 Paul Adrien Maurice
Dirac was born on 8th
August, 1902, at Bristol,
England, his father being
Swiss and his mother
English. He was educated
at the Merchant Venturer's
Secondary School, Bristol,
then went on to Bristol
University. Here, he
studied electrical
engineering, obtaining the
B.Sc. (Engineering) degree
in 1921.
PaulA.M.Dirac
 He then studied
mathematics for two years
at Bristol University, later
going on to St. John's
College, Cambridge, as a
research student in
mathematics. He received
his Ph.D. degree in 1926.
The following year he
became a Fellow of
St.John's College and, in
1932, Lucasian Professor
of Mathematics at
Cambridge.
PaulA.M.Dirac
 Dirac's work has been
concerned with the
mathematical and theoretical
aspects of quantum mechanics.
He began work on the new
quantum mechanics as soon as
it was introduced
by Heisenberg in 1925 -
independently producing a
mathematical equivalent which
consisted essentially of a
noncommutative algebra for
calculating atomic properties -
and wrote a series of papers on
the subject, published mainly
in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society, leading up to his
relativistic theory of the
electron (1928) and the theory
PaulA.M.Dirac of holes (1930).
 The importance of Dirac's
work lies essentially in his
famous wave equation,
which introduced special
relativity into
Schrödinger's equation.
Taking into account the
fact that, mathematically
speaking, relativity theory
and quantum theory are
not only distinct from each
other, but also oppose
each other, Dirac's work
could be considered a
fruitful reconciliation
between the two theories.
PaulA.M.Dirac
 Carl David
Anderson, (born Sept. 3,
1905, New York, N.Y.,
U.S.—died Jan. 11,
1991, San Marino,
Calif.), American physicist
who, with Victor Francis
Hess of Austria, won
the Nobel Prize for Physics
in 1936 for his discovery
of the positron, or
positive electron, the first
known particle of
antimatter.
Carl DavidAnderson
 While studying cloud-
chamber photographs of
cosmic rays, Anderson found
a number of tracks whose
orientation suggested that
they were caused by positively
charged particles—but
particles too small to be
protons. In 1932 he
announced that they were
caused by positrons,
positively charged particles
with the same mass as
electrons. The claim was
controversial until verified the
next year by British physicist
Patrick M.S. Blackett and
Italian Giuseppe Occhialini.
Carl DavidAnderson
 In 1936 Anderson discovered
the mu-meson, or muon,
a subatomic particle 207
times heavier than the
electron. At first he thought
he had found the meson,
postulated by the Japanese
physicist Jukawa Hideki, that
binds protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus of
the atom, but the muon was
found to interact weakly with
these particles. (The particle
predicted by Yukawa was
discovered in 1947 by the
British physicist Cecil Powell
and is known as a pi-meson,
or pion.)
Carl DavidAnderson
 Pauli helped
was theto layto
first the
Pauli was outstanding among
Wolfgang
the brilliant Pauli
recognize
foundations theofwas theborn
existence
mid-twentieth
on Aprilschool
century
quantum
of the 25th,
neutrino, of 1900
theory an
of in
physicists.
fieldsHe
was recognized
Vienna. as one of
He received histhe
and
uncharged
leaders
early he participated
when,
education and
barelymassless
in out of his
Vienna
teens and still a student, he
actively
particle in
which
before studying
published the
a masterly great
carries
at the off
advances
energy inofof
exposition
University made
radioactive
the in this
theory
Munich of ß-
under
relativity. His exclusion
Arnold
principle,Sommerfeld.
domain
disintegration;
around
which this
1945.
is often He
came
quoted
obtained
bearing
Earlier,
at the his
he his
name,
had
beginning doctor's
crystallized
further
ofofa
the existing knowledge
degree in 1921 and spent
great
a year decade,
consolidated
atomic structure
at the atprior
field
University to of
the theory
time it
was postulated and it led to the
by
Worldgiving
Göttingen Warof
recognition proof
II,the
as for of
histhe
assistant
two-valued
relationship
centre
variable
to of
Max required
Born research
between
and in
to a further
characterize the state of an
year
spin with Niels
and"statistics"
theoretical
electron. Bohr at
physics of
at
Copenhagen.
elementary
Zurich. particles.
Wolfgangpauli
THANK
YOU
