Fractal geometry

Fractal geometry is a new way of

looking at the world; we have been
surrounded by natural patterns,
unsuspected but easily recognized
after only an hour's training.
 FRACTALS IN NATURE
DEFINITION
• The computer-scientist Benoit Mandelbrot introduced the word "fractal” in
the year 1975 to describe irregular, not smooth, curves.

• “Fractals are objects of any kind whose spatial form is nowhere smooth,
hence termed "irregular", and whose irregularity repeats itself geometrically
across many scales”

• “A fractal is a geometric shape that exhibits self-similarity across all scales”.

CHARACTERISTICS

The best way to define a fractal is through its attributes:

• A fractal is rugged
• A fractal is Self-similar
• A fractal is infinitely complex
• A fractal is developed through iterations
• A fractal depends on starting conditions
• Fractals are common in nature
 FRACTALS IN NATURE

Most mathematics that we study in school is old knowledge. Around 300 B.C. a
mathematician by the name of Euclid organized the geometry we have been
studying in schools. We can thank him for all the beautiful postulate and theorems
that we now have in our math toolboxes.

Much of fractal geometry, however, is new knowledge. Fractal geometry and chaos
theory are providing us with a new way to describe the world. Many objects in
nature aren't formed of Euclid’s squares or triangles, but of more complicated
geometric figures. Many natural objects - ferns, clouds, seashells - are shaped like
fractals.

Fractal geometry is a new language used to describe, model and analyze complex
forms found in nature. Chaos science uses this new fractal geometry.
 Fractals in Traditional Architecture
• Another point is the scale on which the fractal dimension
is measured: great urban environments use fractals on the CURVATURE ARISING FROM
human scale, whereas dead environments deliberately LONGITUDINAL COMPRESSION
remove them.
• For example, a colonnade is useful when the inter-column
spaces are roughly between 1m and 3m, i.e., comparable
to the human scale of movement.

A PORTICO IS A FRACTAL ON THE HUMAN

SCALE.
 Fractals in Traditional Architecture
• A building, or city, is subject to the same organizational laws as a biological organism and a
complex computer program.
• Fractals have two related characteristics:
o they show complexity at every magnification; and
o their edges and interfaces are not smooth, but are either perforated or crinkled.
• A fractal has some connective structure at different scales.
• Historical cities are richly structured at every magnification, whereas contemporary cities
enhance the largest scale but suppress everything else.

Generating a mathematical fractal on different scales.

•
Fractals in Indian Architecture
Indian and Southeast Asian temples and monuments
exhibit a fractal structure: a tower surrounded by
smaller towers, surrounded by still smaller towers, and
so on, for eight or more levels.
• Quoting William Jackson,
"The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite
rising levels of existence and consciousness, expanding
sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the
same time housing the sacred deep within.“
 Fractals in Indian Architecture

The Dharmaraja Rath in Mamallapuram, India displays a

transformation from one level to the next.
For better orientation each level is marked by a blue
rectangle.
In each step one architectural element, colored green, is
added
Fractals in Islamic Architecture
One example for an early attempt of using self-
similarity in
architecture is the floor plan of the Taj Mahal in
Agra/India. The middle octagon that is repeated in
the four diagonals of the outer square forms the
basic element
 FRACTALS – KEY TERMS
initiator
A line-segment or figure that begins as the beginning geometric shape for a fractal.
The initiator is then replaced by the generator for the fractal

Generator
The bent line-segment or figure that replaces the initiator at each iteration of a fractal

iteration
Repeating a set of rules or steps over and over. One step is called an iterate

recursion
Given some starting information and a rule for how to use it to get new information,
the rule is then repeated using the new information

infinity
Greater than any fixed counting number, or extending forever. No matter how large a
number one thinks of, infinity is larger than it. Infinity has no limits

self-similarity
Two or more objects having the same characteristics. In fractals, the shapes of lines
at different iterations look like smaller versions of the earlier shapes
Fractal geometry
Symmetries
Self-similarity
Initiators and Generators
Geometry of plane transformations
Iterated function systems
Inverse problems
Random algorithm
Driven IFS
Fractals in architecture
 Fractal geometry
symmetries
• Translational Symmetry
• Reflectional Symmetry
• Rotational Symmetry

Self-similarity
 symmetries

Translational Symmetry
A shape exhibits translational
symmetry if displacement in
some direction - horizontal or
vertical, for example - returns the
shape to (approximately) its
original configuration.

• Horizontal
• Vertical
Horizontal
Vertical
 symmetries

Reflectional symmetry
A shape exhibits reflectional
symmetry if the shape can be
bisected by a line L, one half of
the shape removed, and the
missing piece replaced by a
reflection of the remaining piece
across L, then the resulting
combination is (approximately)
the same as the original.
Reflectional symmetry
Reflectional symmetry
 symmetries

Rotational Symmetry
A shape exhibits rotational
symmetry if rotation about
some center point returns
the shape to its original
configuration.
Rotational symmetry
 Self-similarity
The simplest fractals are
constructed by iteration. For
example, start with a filled-in
triangle and iterate this process:
• For every filled-in triangle,
connect the midpoints of the
sides and remove the middle
triangle. Iterating this process
produces, in the limit, the
Sierpinski Gasket.
 Self-similarity
The simplest fractals are
constructed by iteration. For
example, start with a filled-in
triangle and iterate this process:
• For every filled-in triangle,
connect the midpoints of the
sides and remove the middle
triangle. Iterating this process
produces, in the limit, the
Sierpinski Gasket.
 Self-similarity

The gasket is self-similar. That is, it

is made up of smaller copies of
itself.
We can describe the gasket as made
of three copies, each 1/2 as tall
and 1/2 as wide as the original.
But note a consequence of self-
similarity: each of these copies is
made of three still smaller
copies, so we can say the gasket
is made of nine copies each 1/4
by 1/4 of the original, or 27
copies each 1/8 by 1/8, or ... .
Usually, we prefer the simplest
description.
 Self-similarity

The gasket is self-similar. That is, it

is made up of smaller copies of
itself.
We can describe the gasket as made
of three copies, each 1/2 as tall
and 1/2 as wide as the original.
But note a consequence of self-
similarity: each of these copies is
made of three still smaller
copies, so we can say the gasket
is made of nine copies each 1/4
by 1/4 of the original, or 27
copies each 1/8 by 1/8, or ... .
Usually, we prefer the simplest
description.
 Self-similarity

The gasket is self-similar. That is, it

is made up of smaller copies of
itself.
We can describe the gasket as made
of three copies, each 1/2 as tall
and 1/2 as wide as the original.
But note a consequence of self-
similarity: each of these copies is
made of three still smaller
copies, so we can say the gasket
is made of nine copies each 1/4
by 1/4 of the original, or 27
copies each 1/8 by 1/8, or ... .
Usually, we prefer the simplest
description.
 Self-similarity

Scale Invariance
All versions of self-similarity
imply scale invariance:
fractals have no natural
size.By contrast, Euclidean
objects do have a natural
size: circles and spheres
have diameters, squares
have side lengths, and so
on.So pictures of natural
fractals often include
Euclidean objects to set the
scale.
 Self-similarity

Scale Invariance
All versions of self-similarity
imply scale invariance:
fractals have no natural
size.By contrast, Euclidean
objects do have a natural
size: circles and spheres
have diameters, squares
have side lengths, and so
on.So pictures of natural
fractals often include
Euclidean objects to set the
scale.
 Self-similarity

Scale Invariance
All versions of self-similarity
imply scale invariance:
fractals have no natural
size.By contrast, Euclidean
objects do have a natural
size: circles and spheres
have diameters, squares
have side lengths, and so
on.So pictures of natural
fractals often include
Euclidean objects to set the
scale.
 Self-similarity

"Big gaskets are made of

little gaskets,The bits
into which we slice
'em.And little gaskets
are made of lesser
gasketsAnd so ad
infinitum."
 Self-similarity

"Big gaskets are made of

little gaskets,The bits
into which we slice
'em.And little gaskets
are made of lesser
gasketsAnd so ad
infinitum."
 Self-similarity

• This fractal is self-affine

instead of self-similar
because the pieces are
scaled by different amounts
in the x- and y-directions.
• The coloring of the pieces
on the right emphasizes
this.
• Each piece is scaled by 1/3
in the x-direction and by
1/2 in the y-direction.
 Initiators and Generators
One way to guarantee self-similarity is to build a
shape by applying the same process over smaller
and smaller scales. This idea can be realized with a
process called initiators and generators.
• The Initiator is the starting shape.
• The Generator is a collection of scaled copies of the
initiator.
• The Rule is this: in the generator, replace each copy
of the initiator with a scaled copy of the generator
(specifying orientations where necessary).
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
The self-similar behavior of Fractal forms can be replicated through recursion: repeating
a process over and over – they will result in purely geometric fractals.
Fractal Generation Rule
At each step, replace every copy of the initiator with a scaled copy of the generator,
rotating as necessary

Example 1
Suppose that we start with a filled-in triangle. We connect
the midpoints of each side and remove the middle Initiator Generator
triangle. We then repeat this process - the shape that
emerges is called the Sierpinski gasket. .

It can be noticed that it exhibits self-similarity –

any piece of the gasket will look identical to the
whole. In fact, we can say that the Sierpinski
gasket contains three copies of itself, each half
as tall and wide as the original. Of course, each
of those copies also contains three copies of
itself.
ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Sierpinski
carpet
constructions
on several
polygons
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
Example 2
Use the initiator and generator shown to
create the iterated fractal.
initiator generator

This tells us to, at each step, replace each line segment with the spiked shape shown in
the generator. Notice that the generator itself is made up of 4 copies of the initiator. In
step 1, the single line segment in the initiator is replaced with the generator. For step 2,
each of the four line segments of step 1 is replaced with a scaled copy of the generator:

Step 1 Scaled copy of A scaled copy replaces each Step 2

generator line segment of Step 1

This process is repeated to form Step 3. Again, each line segment is replaced with a
scaled copy of the generator.
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
Notice that since Step 0 only had 1 line segment, Step 1 only required one copy of Step 0.
Since Step 1 had 4 line segments, Step 2 required 4 copies of the generator.
Step 2 then had 16 line segments, so Step 3 required 16 copies of the generator.
Step 4, then, would require 16*4 = 64 copies of the generator.

Koch curve

The shape resulting from iterating this

process is called the Koch curve, named for
Helge von Koch who first explored it in 1904.
ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
Example 3
Use the initiator and generator below, however only
iterate on the “branches.” Sketch several steps of the
iteration.
initiator generator

We begin by replacing the initiator with the

generator. We then replace each “branch” of
Step 1 with a scaled copy of the generator to
create Step 2. Step 1 Step 2

We can repeat this process to create later steps. Repeating this process can create
intricate tree shapes.

Step 3 Step 4 Final shape

 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
Example 4
Create a variation on the
Sierpinski gasket by randomly
skewing the corner points each Step 0 Step 1 Step 1 with
time an iteration is made. randomnesss

Suppose we start with the

triangle below. We begin, as
before, by removing the middle
triangle. We then add in some Step 1 with Step 2 Step 2 with
randomnesss randomnesss
randomness.

We then repeat this process.

Continuing this process can create

mountain-like structures.

The landscape to the right was

created using fractals, then
colored and textured.
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Initiator Generator

Initiator Generator
1 3
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Pinwheel fractal. Being obtained from

substitutions, the pinwheel tiling can also be
seen as a fractal.
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

initiator generator

initiator generator

initiator generator
initiator generator

initiator generator
initiator generator
 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Fractal of the tetrahedron, steps 0 to 3, the first step is the Stella Octangula
ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS
Fractal of the cube, three-dimensional analogon to
the Koch curve – Rendering after four iterations
ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Fractal of the Oktahedron, steps 1, 2 and 3

 ITERATED or GEOMETRIC FRACTALS

Menger sponge, the fourth iteration of the construction process

 The Koch curve
Take as initiator the line
segment of length1,
and as generator the
shape on the right.
Though its construction is
so simple, the Koch
curve has some
properties that appear
counterintuitive.
 The Koch curve
Take as initiator the line
segment of length1,
and as generator the
shape on the right.
Though its construction is
so simple, the Koch
curve has some
properties that appear
counterintuitive.
 The Koch curve
Take as initiator the line segment of
length1, and as generator the
shape on the right.
Though its construction is so simple,
the Koch curve has some
properties that appear
counterintuitive.
Using the shape of the generator as
a guide, we see the Koch curve is
made of four copies of itself,
each scaled by a factor of 1/3
horizontally and vertically.
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Affine transformations of
the plane are composed
of
• Scaling
• Reflections
• Rotations
• Translations
• Matrix formation
• Translation and
Reflection Order
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Scaling
• The scaling factor in the x-
direction is denoted r.
• The scaling factor in the y-
direction is denoted s.
• Assume there are no
rotations. Then if r = s, the
transformation is a
similarity
otherwise it is an affinity

Note the scalings are always toward the origin. That is, the origin is the fixed
point of all scalings.
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Reflections
• Negative r reflects
across the y-axis .

• Negative s reflects
across the x-axis.
• Reflection across both the x- and y-axes is equivalent to
rotation by 180 degrees about the origin.
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Rotations
• Theta measures rotations
of horizontal lines

• Phi measures rotations of

vertical lines
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Rotations
• Theta = phi gives a rigid
rotation about the
origin. Positive angles
are counterclockwise.
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Translations
• Horizontal translation is
measured by e.

• Vertical translation is
measured by f.
 Geometry of Plane Transformations

Matrix formulation

• This is the matrix

formulation for the
transformation that
involves scaling by r in the
x-direction, by s in the y-
direction, rotations by
theta and phi, and
translations by e and f.
Geometry of Plane Transformations
Translation and Reflection Order

•Reflection (r = -1), then translation (e = 1/2) gives

•Translation (e = 1/2), then reflection (r = -1) gives

 Iterated Function Systems
IFS table
• Emphasizing this order, the
components of a transformation are
encoded in tables of this form
• With this encoding of
transformations of the plane, we can
now make fractals using the method
called Iterated Function Systems
(IFS).
• Now we apply these ideas to
generate fractals in Iterated
Function Systems.
 Iterated Function Systems
Sierpinski Gasket IFS
We begin with a right isosceles
Sierpinski gasket. Certainly, the
gasket can be viewed as made up
of three copies of itself, each
scaled by a factor of 1/2 in both the
x- and y-directions.

To determine the translation amount of

each piece, take some point of the
whole fractal (the lower left corner,
for example) and observe where
that point goes in each piece.
 Iterated Function Systems
Sierpinski Gasket IFS

The rules for the right isosceles Sierpinski gasket

 Iterated Function Systems
Sierpinski Gasket IFS

The rules for the right isosceles Sierpinski gasket

 Iterated Function Systems
Invariance of the Gasket

Note: applying all three of these transformations to the gasket gives the
gasket again.
That is, the gasket is invariant under the simultaneous application of these
three transformations.
In fact, the gasket is the only (compact) shape left invariant.
 Iterated Function Systems
Invariance of the Gasket

Note: applying all three of these transformations to the gasket gives the
gasket again.
That is, the gasket is invariant under the simultaneous application of these
three transformations.
In fact, the gasket is the only (compact) shape left invariant.
The Inverse Problem
Natural Fractals
The Inverse Problem
Natural Fractals
 Assignment topics
Self-similarity –
Relatives of the Gasket
1.A Dendrite Example
2.A Cantor set example
3.A multiply-connected example
4.A hybrid example
Initiators and Generators -
5.L-Systems
6.Fractal trees