Ta ble 9-1.

In ventory of water at the earth’s surface

Volu me
Reservoir 10 6 k m3 % of Total

Oceans 1400 95.96

M i xed layer 50
Thermo cline 460

Abyssal 890
Ice caps and glaciers 43.4 2.97

Ground water 15.3 1.05

Lakes 0.125 0.009
Rivers 0.001 7 0.0001
Soil moisture 0.065 0.0045
At mosphere 0.015 5 0.001
Terrestrial 0.004 5

Oceanic 0.011 0
Biosphere 0.002 0.0001

Total 1459
Figure 9-1. Schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. Numbers in parentheses are the volume of water (106 km3) in each
reservoir. Fluxes are given in 106 km3 y-1.
Table 9-2. Deco mpositi on reactions for co mmon primary minerals

Co mmonly
Occur in
Mineral Co mposition Rock-typ e(s) Reaction
Olivine (M g,Fe)SiO 4 Igneous O xidation of Fe
Congruent d issolution b y acids
Pyro xenes (M g,Fe)SiO 3 Igneous O xidation of Fe
Ca(Mg,Fe)Si 2 O 6 Congruent d issolution b y acids

A mphiboles Ca2 (M g,Fe) 5Si8O 2 2(OH) 2 Igneous O xidation of Fe

(also so me Na and Al) M etamorphic Congruent d issolution b y acids

Plagioclase NaAlSi3 O 8 to CaAl 2 Si2 O 8 Igneous Incongruent d issolution b y acids

feldspar M etamorphic

K-feldspar KAlSi 3 O 8 Igneous Incongruent d issolution b y acids

M etamorphic
Sedi mentary
Biotite K(Mg,Fe) 3(AlSi3 O 10 )(O H)2 M etamorphic Incongruent d issolution b y acids
Igneous O xidation of Fe
Muscovite KAl 3Si3O 1 0(OH) 2 M etamorphic Incongruent d issolution b y acids
Volcanic glass Ca,Mg,Na,K,Al,Fe-silicate Igneous Incongruent d issolution b y acids
(not a mineral) Incongruent d issolution b y water

Quartz SiO 2 Igneous Resistant to dissolutio n

M etamorphic
Sedi mentary

Calcite CaCO 3 Sedi mentary Congruent d issolution b y acids

Dolo mite CaM g(CO 3) 2 Sedi mentary Congruent d issolution b y acids

Pyrite FeS2 Sedi mentary O xidation of Fe and S

Gypsu m CaSO 4 
2 H 2O Sedi mentary Congruent d issolution b y water
Anhydrite CaSO 4 Sedi mentary Congruent d issolution b y water

Halite NaCl Sedi mentary Congruent d issolution b y water

Ta ble 9-3. Mineral weathera bility listed in order
of increasing resistance to weathering
Halite

Gypsu m, anhydrite

Pyrite
Calcite

Dolo mite
Volcanic glass

Olivine

Ca-plagio clase
Pyro xenes

Ca-Na plagio clase

A mphibo les

Na-plagioclase

Biotite
K-feldspar

M uscovite
Vermiculite, s mectite
Quartz

Kaolinite
Gib bsite, hematite, goethite
Table 9-4. Weathering reactions an d free energies per gram ato m
o o
ΔG R ΔG R
Mineral Weathering reaction kJ mol -1 kJ (g ato m)-1
1
Fayalite Fe2SiO 4 + O 2  Fe2 O 3 + SiO 2 -22 0.5 -27.53
2
Forsterite M g 2SiO 4 + 4H +  2M g 2+ + 2H 2 O + SiO 2 -18 4.1 -16.74

Clinoenstatite M gSiO 3 + 2H +  Mg 2+ + H 2O + SiO 2 -87.4 -12.47

Diopside CaMgSi 2O 6 + 4H +  Mg 2+ + Ca2+ + 2H 2O + 2SiO 2 -15 9.4 -11.38

Anthophyllite M g 7Si8O 2 2(OH) 2 + 1 4H +  7M g 2+ + 8H 2 O + 8SiO 2 -57 4.0 -10.42

Tremolite Ca2M g 5Si8O 2 2(OH) 2 + 1 4H +  5M g 2+ + 2 Ca2+ + 8H 2 O + 8SiO 2 -51 5.5 -9.37

Anorthite CaAl 2Si 2O 8 + 2H + + H 2 O  Al2 Si2 O 5(OH) 4 + Ca2+ -10 0.0 -5.52

Albite 2 NaAlSi3 O 8 + 2 H + + H 2 O  Al2Si2O 5 (O H)4 + 4SiO 2 + 2 Na+ -96.7 -3.14

Microcline 2 KAlSi 3 O 8 + 2 H + + H 2O  Al2Si2 O 5(O H)4 + 4SiO 2 + 2 K + -72.4 -1.34

Muscovite 2 KAl3 Si3 O 10 (OH)2 + 2H + + 3H 2O  2K + + 3Al 2Si2 O 5(OH) 4 -72.4 -1.34

Figure 9-2. Solubility, at 25oC, of quartz and amorphous silica as a function of pH. pH = 9.83 and pH = 13.17
correspond to the first and second dissociation constants, respectively, of silicic acid.
Ta ble 9-5. Constants for Al an d Fe33++ solu bility calculati ons at 25oo C

Phase p K sp pK β pK β pK β pK β
1 2 3 4

Al(OH) 3 (am) 31.2 5.00 10.1 16.9 2 2.7

Al(OH) 3 gibbsite 33.9 5.00 10.1 16.9 2 2.7

Fe(OH) 3 (am) 37.1 2.19 5.67 12.56 2 1.6

Fe(OH) 3 goeth ite 44.2 2.19 5.67 12.56 2 1.6

pK o pK 1 p K2 p K3 pK 4
Kaolinite -3.72 1.28 6.38 13.18 1 8.9 8
Figure 9-3. Total concentration of aluminum in solution, as a function of pH, for a solution in equilibrium with gibbsite.
Ta ble 9-6. Thermo dynamic data for sta bility diagra m calculati ons
o
ΔG R
Sp ecies or mineral kJ mol-1 Source

Na+ -261.9 Robie et al. (197 8)

K+ -282.5 Robie et al. (197 8)

Ca2 + -553.5 Robie et al. (197 8)

H2 O -237.15 Robie et al. (197 8)

H 4SiO 4 (aq) -1308.0 Robie et al. (197 8)

Quartz [SiO 2] -856.3 Robie et al. (197 8)

A morphous SiO 2 -849.1 Drever (199 7)

Albite [NaAlSi 3O 8 ] -3711.7 Robie et al. (197 8)

Microcline [KAlSi 3O 8 ] -3742.3 Robie et al. (197 8)

Anorthite [CaAl 2Si2O 8 ] -4017.3 Robie et al. (197 8)

Muscovite [KAl 3Si3 O 10(OH) 2] -5600.7 Robie et al. (197 8)

Kaolinite [Al2Si2O 5 (OH)4 ] -3799.4 Robie et al. (197 8)

Pyrophyllite [Al2Si4 O 10(OH) 2] -5269.3 Garrels (1 984)

Gibbsite [Al(O H)3 ] -1159.0 Garrels (1 984)

Illite [K 0 .8Al1.9 (Al0 .5Si3.5)O 1 0(OH) 2] -5471.8 Garrels (1 984)
Na-beidellite [Na0 .33 Al2 .33 Si3 .67 O 10(O H)2 ] -5368.1 Lang muir (19 97)

Ca-beidellite [Ca0.1 67Al2 .33 Si3. 67 O 10(OH) 2] -5371.6 Calculated

Mont morillonite [K 0.3 Al1.9Si4 O 10(OH) 2] -5303.2 Garrels (1 984)
Figure 9-4a. Equilibrium equations 9-16 to 9-20 plotted on a Figure 9-4b. Mineral stability fields as delineated by equilibrium
log([Na+]/[H+]) versus log[H4SiO4 (aq)] diagram. Numbers on the equations plotted in Figure 9-4a. The labeled curve indicates the
diagram indicate corresponding equations in the text. changes in chemistry of a solution in equilibrium with albite
during weathering in a closed system. See text for discussion.
T able 9-7. C ompositions of selected surface an d groun d waters
Concentration ( mg L-1)
2+ 2+ + 2 
Ca Mg Na K+ Cl - SO 4 HC O 3 SiO 2 TDS Ref
Ri ver
Co lo rado 83 24 95 5.0 82 2 70 135 9.3 70 3 1
Co lu mbia 19 5.1 6.2 1.6 3.5 17.1 76 10.5 13 9 1
Mississippi 39 1 0.7 17 2.8 19.3 50.3 117 7.6 26 5 1
Rio Grande 109 24 1 17 6.7 171 2 38 183 30 88 1 2
U. Rhine 41 7.2 1.4 1.2 1.1 36 114 3.7 30 7 3
U. A mazon 19 2.3 6.4 1.1 6.5 7.0 68 11.1 12 2 4
L. A mazon 5.2 1.0 1.5 0.8 1.1 1.7 20 7.2 38 4
L. Negro 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.7 4.1 6 4
Za mbeze 9.7 2.2 4.0 1.2 1 3 25 12 58 1
Nile 25 7.0 17 4.0 7.7 9 134 21 22 5 1
Ganges 25.4 6.9 10.1 2.7 5 8.5 127 8.2 19 4 5
Yellow 42 1 7.7 55.6 2.9 46.9 71.7 182 5.1 42 4 6
Groun d water
(dominant rock)
Central Florida
34 5.6 3.2 0.5 4.5 2.4 124 12 - 7
(carb onate)
Central Pennsylvania
83 17 8.5 6.3 17 27 279 - - 8
(carb onate)
Mo ntana (sandstone) 3.0 7.4 8 57 2.4 71 1.6 2080 16 309 8 9
New Me xico
636 43 17 - 24 1570 143 29 248 0 9
(gypsu m)
California
34 24 2 1 84 18 265 6.6 1300 175 222 6 9
(serpentine)
Rhod e Island
6.5 2.6 5.9 0.8 5 0.9 38 20 82 9
(granite)
Maryland (gabbro ) 5.1 2.3 6.2 3.2 1.0 9.2 37 39 109 9
Hawaii (b asalt) 17 42 38 3.1 63 15 84 18 251 9
New Me xico
6.5 1.1 38 2 17 15 77 103 222 10
(rhyolite)
North Carolina
17 1.7 6.4 1 1.1 6.9 69 29 98 10
( mica schist)
West Virginia
58 13 23 2.8 39 1 16 101 10 338 10
(sand and gravel)
Alabama (li mestone) 46 4.2 1.5 0.8 3.5 4.0 146 8.4 222 10
Figure 9-5. Stiff diagram for Columbia and Rio Grande river waters and Central
Pennsylvania groundwater. See text for discussion
Figure 9-6. Piper diagram for Columbia and Rio Grande river waters and
Central Pennsylvania groundwater. See text for discussion.
Figure 9-7. Hydrochemical facies. After Back (1966).
Figure 9-8a. Plot of total dissolved solids
versus relative cation abundances for surface
waters. Filled circles are river, unfilled circles
are lake, and pluses are ocean waters. From R.
J. Gibbs (1970).
Figure 9-8b. Plot of total dissolved solids
versus relative anion abundances for surface
waters. Filled circles are river, unfilled circles
are lake, and pluses are ocean waters. From R.
J. Gibbs (1970).
Figure 9-9. Graphical representation of the processes
that control the chemistry of surface waters. See text
for discussion. From R. J. Gibbs (1970).
 Ta ble 9-8 . Stallard an d Edmon d (1983 ) ri ver classification

Total Characteristic
Cationic Predo minant Water
Charge ~TDS Source-Rock Chemistry Gibbs
Type (µeq L-1) (mg L-1) Typ e ( mole ratios) Examples Catego ry

1 < 200 <20 Intensely Si-enriched; low A mazon At mosphere-

weathered (cation- pH; Si/(Na + K) = tributaries precipitation
po or) siliceous 2; high Na/(Na + controlled
rocks and soils Ca)
(thick regolith)

2 200-450 20-40 Siliceous (cation- Si-enriched; L. Between

rich); igneous (higher Si fro m A mazon at mosphere-
rocks and shales igneous and Orinoco precipitation
(sed imentary metamorphic Zaire controlled and
silicates) rocks); Si/(Na + rock-
K) = 2; do minated
intermed iate
Na/(Na + Ca)

3 450-3000 40-250 M arine sedi ments; Na/ Cl = 1; (Ca + Most Ro ck-

carbonates, pyrite; Mg)/(0.5 HCO 3 + major weathering
minor evaporites SO 4) = 1; lo w rivers do minated
Na/(Na + Ca)

4 >3000 >250 Evaporites; CaSO 4 Na/ Cl = 1; (Ca + Rio Evaporation-

and NaCl Mg)/(0.5 H CO 3 + Grand e crystallization
SO 4) = 1; high
Na/(Na + Ca)
Ta ble 9-9. Sources of major elements in ri ver water (%)

Atmosphere Weathering

Species Cyclic Salt Carbonates Silicates Evaporites Pollution

Ca 2+ 0.1 65 18 8 9

HCO 3 <<1 61 37 0 2
Na+ 8 0 22 42 28

Cl- 13 0 0 57 30
2
SO 4 2 0 0 22 54
Mg 2 + 2 36 54 << 1 8

Na+ 1 0 87 5 7
H 4 SiO 4 <<1 0 >99 0 0
Figure 9-10. Simplified groundwater system showing the movement of water through the system. See text for
discussion.
Figure 9-11. Mole ratio of Na+/Ca2+ versus mole ratio of HCO2-/SiO2 (aq) for waters
from various types of igneous rocks. Most of the waters plot between the theoretical
curves for incongruent dissolution of plagioclase to montmorillonite and the
incongruent dissolution of plagioclase to kaolinite. See text for discussion. From
Garrels (1967).
Figure 9-12. Plot of Ca2+ + pH versus SiO2 for various groundwater
samples. Stability boundaries for various phases are shown in the diagram.
Solid curves with arrows indicate evolution of groundwater chemistry for
systems open or closed with respect to atmospheric CO2. See text for
discussion. From Garrels (1967).
Ta ble 9-10. Origin of major a queous s pecies in groun d water

Aqueous species Origin

+
Na NaCl d issolution (so me p ollution)
Plagioclase weathering

Rainwater addition

K+ Biotite weathering
K-feldspar weathering

Mg 2 + A mphibole and pyro xene weathering

Biotite (and chlorite) weathering
Do lo mite weathering
Olivine weathering

Rainwater addition

Ca2 + Calcite weathering

Plagioclase weathering

Do lo mite weathering


HCO 3 Calcite and dolo mite weathering
Silicate weathering

2
SO 4 Pyrite weathering (so me pollution)

CaSO 4 dissolution
Rainwater addition

Cl - NaCl d issolution (so me p ollution)

Rainwater addition

H 4SiO 4 (aq) Silicate weathering

Figure 9-13. Generalized depth-temperature profiles for a midlatitude lake during the
summer and winter.
Figure 9-14. Two-compartment box model for a lake. See text for details.
Figure 9-15. Variations in the concentration of the various carbonate species as a function of pH, in freshwater at a
temperature of 25oC, given a total carbonate concentration of 1 x 10-3 mol L-1. For these conditions the carbonate system
loses its buffering capacity at pH = 4.65.
Ta ble 9-11. Point of zero net proton charg e

Material p H pznpc M aterial pH pznpc

α -Al(O H)3 5.0 δ -MnO 2 2.8

γ -Al OOH 8.2 SiO 2 2.0

Fe 3O 4 6.5 Feldspars 2 - 2.4

α -FeOOH 7.8 Kaolinite 4.6

α -Fe 2O 3 8.5 M ont morillonite 2.5

Fe(O H)3 (am) 8.5 Albite 2.0
Figure 9-16. Adsorption of metal cations as a function of pH. From AQUATIC CHEM ISTRY, 3rd Edition by W. Stumm and
J. J. Morgan. Copyright 1996. This material is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ta ble 9-12. Size ranges for colloi dal particles in natural waters

A mount Size observed Size peaks

Sample ( mg L-1) (µ m) (µ m)

Rainwater 0.00 6 0.08

Northern Pacific Ocean 0.38 - 1

Gulf of Me xico 0.02 - 8

Biscaye Bay 0.5 - 150

Lake 0.04 - 0.4 0.1

Chuckawa Creek 50 0.3 - 1.3 0.2

Mississip pi River 350 0.3

Yarra River 1 - 10 0.1 - 0.5 0.22

Noiraigue spring 0.5 - 10 0.5 - 60 0.8 - 1

Ground water (Gorleb en) 0.005 - 0.01

Ground water (Gri msel) 0.1 0.04 - 1

Figure 9-17. Partitioning of monovalent and divalent cations between solution and adsorber. Concentrations are given as an
equivalent fraction of Na. Kna/Ca = 0.5. The divalent cation is much more strongly adsorbed in the low ionic strength (low
normality) solution.
Figure 9-18. Relative transport distances in a groundwater system for a nonadsorbed tracer species and an adsorbed species. C/Co is
the measured concentration of the species relative to its original concentration at distance x. Note that the concentration of the
species varies with distance because of dispersion.
Ta ble 9-13. S olubility pro ducts of so me metal oxalates

M etal o xalate T (o C) pK sp

Cd 2C2 O 4·3H 2 O 25 7.85

CaC2 O 4·H 2 O 25 8.59

Cu C2O 4 25 7.54
Pb C2O 4 25 9.07

Mg C2 O 4·2H 2 O 25 5.32

Mn C2 O 4·2H 2 O 25 6.77
Ag 2 C2O 4 25 11.27

Hg 2 C2 O 4 25 12.76
SrC2O 4 ·H 2O 18 7.25

Zn C2O 4 ·2H 2O 25 8.86

Figure 9-19. Interaction between various earth reservoirs. Adapted from Larocque and
Rasmussen (1998).
Figure 9-20. Human impact on the “metal cycle”. Adapted from Larocque and
Rasmussen (1998).
Figure 9-21. Present-day mercury cycle. The fluxes are given in Mmol L-1. HgP
represents mercury adsorbed to particles. Anthropogenic inputs are approximately 20
Mmol y-1; half is returned to the surface close to the source and the other half is
transferred to the atmosphere as volatile mercury. Adapted from Mason et al. (1994).
Ta ble 9-1 4. Igeo
geo classes and sedi ment quality

Igeo Class Sedi ment Quality

0 Unpolluted
1 Unpolluted to mod erately polluted

2 Mod erately polluted

3 Mod erately to highly polluted

4 Highly polluted
5 Highly to very highly polluted
6 Very highly po lluted
Figure 9-22. The nuclear fuel cycle. Modified from Faure (1998).
Ta ble 9-15. Representati ve ra dioacti ve isoto pes for nuclear wastes

Decay Decay
Isotope Half-life mode Isotop e Half-life mode

Fission products Fission products

85
Kr 10.8 y β 1 37
Cs 30 y β
89
Sr 51 d β 1 41
Ce 33 d β
90
Sr 28 y β 1 47
Pm 2.6 y β
95
Zr 64 d β
95
Nb 35 d β Transuranics
99
Tc 2.1 x 10 5 y β 2 37
Np 2.1 x 10 6 y α
10 6
Ru 1y β 2 39
Pu 2.4 x 10 4 y α
13 1
I 8d β 2 40
Pu 6.6 x 10 3 y α
13 3
Xe 5.2 d β 2 41
Am 433 y α
 Figure 9-23a. Radioactivity as a function of time after
removal of a fuel element from a power reactor. Curves are
drawn for both SURF and HLW (after reprocessing) and the
two types of radioactive components, fission products and
actinides (Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, and Cm). The data are for a
pressurized water reactor (PWR) with a fuel burn-up of 33
GW-day tonne-1 normalized to 1 metric ton of heavy metal in
the original fuel element. TBq = 1012 Bq. Plotted from the data
of Roxburgh (1987).

Figure 9-23b. Heat production as a function of time, after a

five-year cooling period, for SURF and HLW. The data are for
a pressurized water reactor (PWR) with a fuel burn-up of 33
GW-day tonne-1 normalized to 1 metric ton of heavy metal in
the original fuel element. Plotted from the data of Roxburgh
(1987).
Table 9-16. Esti mates of solubilities (mg L-1-1 ) of i mportant
ra dioisoto pes at 25oo C an d 1 atm

Reducing conditions O xidizing cond itions

Eh = -0.2 V Eh = +0.2 V

Ele ment pH 9 pH 6 pH 9 pH 6
Sr 0.6 high 0.6 high

Cs high high high high

Tc 10 -10 high high high
I high high high high

U 10 -3 10 -6 high high
Np 10 -4 10 -4 10 -2 10 -1
Pu 10 -5 10 -4 10 -5 10 -3
Am 10 -8 10 -5 10 -8 10 -5

Ra 10 -3 10 -1 10 -3 10 -1
Pb 10 -1 1 10 -1 1
Ta ble 9 -17 . Retardation factors for ra dioacti ve isoto pes in various geo media

Element Granite Basalt Volcanic ash Shale (or clay)

Sr 20 - 40 00 50 - 3000 1 00 - 100000 100 - 10 0000

Cs 20 0 - 100000 200 - 100 000 5 00 - 100000 200 - 10 0000

Tc 1 - 40 1 - 100 1 - 10 0 1 - 40
I 1 1 1 1

U 40 - 500 100 - 500 40 - 400 100 - 2 000

Np 20 - 500 20 - 20 0 20 - 200 50 - 1000

Pu 20 - 20 00 20 - 100 00 20 - 50 00 50 - 100000

Am 500 - 10 000 100 - 10 00 100 - 1000 500 - 10 0000

Ra 50 - 500 50 - 50 0 100 - 1000 100 - 200

Pb 20 - 5 0 20 - 10 0 20 - 100 20 - 1 00
T a ble 9-18. Classification of org anic compoun ds in natural waters
Examples

Class Name Naturally Occurring Anthropogenic

1 M iscellaneous Fulvic acid, hu mic acid, Tannic acids, d yes, optical
nonvolatile chlorophyll, xanthophylls, enzy mes b righteners
co mp ounds
2 Halogenated Solvents ( methylene chloride,
hydrocarbons chlo rofor m, carbon tetrachlo ride),
p esticides (aldrin, DDT, dieldrin),
industrial chemicals (vinyl chlo ride,
methyl chloride, PC Bs)

3 A mino acids Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid

4 Phosphorous Pesticides (diazinon, malathion,
co mp ounds p arathion)

5 Organo metallic Tetraethyllead, diethyl mercury,

co mp ounds copper p hthalocyanine
6 Carb o xylic acid Acetic acid, ben zoic acid, butyric Acetic acid , benzoic acid, b utyric
acid, for mic acid acid, for mic acid , pheno xy acetic
p esticides (2,4-D, silvex, 2,4,5-T)

7 Phenols Phenol, cresol, p-hydro xyben zoic Cresol, pheno l, pyro catechol,
acids napthol, pesticides (dinitrocresol,
2,4-dinitrophenol)

8 A mines Diethylamine, di methylamine,

b enzidine, pyridine
9 Ketones Acetone, 2-butane, methyl prop enyl

10 Aldehydes For maldehyde

11 Alcohols M ethanol, glycerol, terpinol,
ethyleneglycol

12 Esters Di methrin, o mite, vinyl acetate

13 Ethers Diethyl ether, diphenyl ether Tetrahydrofuran, 1,4-dio xane

14 PAHs Anthracene, benzo[a]p yrene

15 Aro matic Ben zene, ethylbenzene, toluene Benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene
hydrocarbons

16 Alkanes, alkenes Methane, propane, p ropene, 2- M ethane, p ropane, propene, 2-

and alkynes hexene, 2-hexyne he xene, 2-hexyne
Figure 9-24. Solubility of fluorite at 25oC as a function of F- and Ca2+ concentrations. See text for discussion.
Figure 9-25. Binary mixture of groundwater (0.05 mg L-1 Br and 5 mg L-1 Cl) and brine (1 mg L-1 Br and 10,000
mg L-1 Cl). Labeled points are fraction of brine in the mixture. Groundwater samples from an aquifer (filled
squares) fall along this line, suggesting they represent mixtures of uncontaminated groundwater and brine. The
maximum amount of brine in the groundwater is approximately 31%.
Figure 9-26. The terrestrial nitrogen cycle. DON = dissolved organic nitrogen; DIN
= dissolved inorganic nitrogen; PN = particulate nitrogen: PON = particulate organic
nitrogen; N = total nitrogen. From Berner and Berner (1996).
Ta ble 9 -19 . Trophic status of lakes

Total P Chloro phyll a

(µg L-1) (µg L-1)

Ultraoligotro phic <4 <1.0

Oligotrophic 4 - 10 1.0 - 2.5
M esotrophic 10 - 3 5 2.5 - 8
Eutro phic 35 - 100 8 - 25
Hypertrophic >100 >25
Figure 9-27. Total nitrogen (as nitrate) and phosphorus (as phosphate) for selected rivers.
Area enclosed by dashed lines represents unpolluted rivers. The diagonal lines represent
constant N/P ratios (atomic). N/P = 16 is the Redfield ratio. From Berner and Berner (1996).
Figure 9-C2-1. Piper diagram showing the compositions of the mine and lake discharges
and the mixed stream water. From Foos (1997).
Figure 9-C3-1. Piper diagram showing chemical evolution of groundwater in the
Floridian aquifer from recharge areas to discharge areas. From Back and Hanshaw
(1970).
Figure 9-C8-1. pH, redox, and hydrological characteristics of a typical acid sulfate soil. After Åström (2001).