Biology 250

Imad Saoud
Evolution - Selection.
Darwin 1809 – 1882.
Darwin
1809 – 1882.
Darwin 1831 - 1836
 What Darwin saw.
• Darwin realized that organisms change with
time.
• Organisms in different but similar areas of
the world were different-but-similar species.
• They did not have the same origin but look
and behave similarly to each other.
• Some seemed to have the same ancestors
and some had completely different
ancestors.
Some Darwin Observations.
• Tortoises act as agents of selection.
• Cactus trees with trunks vs. without trunks
•Finches with different beaks.
• Darwin made several notebooks of
sketches and observations.
• He then went back to England and spent
many years going over his notes.
Darwin’s observations

• 1- A natural population has the potential

to grow rapidly, because organisms
produce more offspring than is enough to
replace the parents.
• 2- However, the number of individuals in a
population tends to remain relatively
constant over time.
Darwin’s observations

• Conclusion 1: More individuals are born

than survive and reach reproductive age
or reproduce. Individuals compete to
reproduce. The most fit produce offspring.
 Darwin’s observations

• 3- Individual members of a population

vary in their ability to obtain resources,
escape predation, withstand
environmental extremes.
 Darwin’s observations

• Conclusion 2: These differences must

influence which individuals survive and
reproduce. The fittest produce more
offspring.
Darwin’s observations

• 4- The offspring of the fittest individuals

will probably be more fit than others. That
means they will reproduce more than
other individuals in the population.
• This process is termed natural selection.
 Darwin’s observations

• Conclusion 3: Over several generations, a

larger proportion of individuals will be
better fit.
 So what is the definition of
“Fitness”.
• Fitness is defined as: Having the
necessary traits to reproduce more than
other members of the population and to
be able to give those traits to offspring.

• A more fit individual gets more mates and

more offspring that are also more fit.
 Proof of Evolution
• Darwin concluded that there are four major
categories of science that prove evolution exists, as
well as many minor categories.
1. Biogeography = distribution of related species.
2. Paleontology = fossil record.
3. Embryology = Embryonic stage similarities.
4. Morphology (shape and function) = Homologous &
Analogous structures. Also Co-evolution of
species such as moths and plants with special
flowers.
 How do we know about evolution?
• Lack of proof of anything else.
• Location around the world of related species.
• Fossil record.
• Analogous structures (convergent evolution).
• Homologous structures (divergent).
• Embryonic stages.
Fossil Record.
 Fossil Record.
Homo ergaster

Homo erectus
Convergent evolution
Homologous structures; i.e.
Divergent evolution.
Embryonic stages
Lamarck’s theory.
Evolution.
• This does not happen in individuals but rather
through generations.
Evolution.

• Is related to genes.
• The total sum of all genetic traits in a
population is called the gene pool.
• Evolution is the change in the makeup of
genes in a gene pool over time.
Evolution.
• Example: A group of monkeys lives in the
forest and they have all kinds of sizes of
fingers. One is born with long thumbs
because of a mutation. She can pick fruit
better so she feeds her offspring better.
They grow bigger and can feed better so
they get more offspring than others in the
population. With time, the population will
have more monkeys with long thumbs.
 Evolution.

• An equilibrium population is a theoretical

population in which the gene pool does not
change. This means no Evolution. i.e.:
• No mutations
• No gene flow (between populations)
• Large population (no genetic drift)
• Has random mating
• No natural selection
Causes of evolution
 Mutation.
• A change in the makeup of the genes of one
or more individuals.
• Most mutations are without effect.
• Must affect survival and fitness to have a
chance to cause evolution.
• Must also be lucky to survive.
• However: Always remember that mutation
is the ultimate source of genetic variation
making evolution possible.
• Movement of genes Gene Flow.
from one population to
another by emigration
or immigration.
• Sometimes it can be
the movement of
gametes from one
population to another
such as in marine
animals or in plants.
Nonrandom mating.
• Based on selecting mates or inbreeding.
• Does not change the ratios of genes to
one another in a population but does
cause more individuals to become alike
genetically. Can be very dangerous.
• Happens when some individuals get
chosen to breed for a reason that does
not apparently change fitness.
Genetic Drift.
• In small populations, gene frequencies can
change due to chance alone.
• Founder effect
• Bottleneck effect
 Selection
• For natural selection to occur, three
conditions must be met:
1. Variation must exist in a population.
2. This variation must result in differences of
survival among offspring and future generations.
3. Variation must be genetically inherited.
 Selection
• Remember Selection
and Evolution are
not the same.
Selection is a
process. Evolution is
an outcome.
• There are various
reasons for
selection.
Selection
1. To avoid predators.
Selection
2. To match climatic conditions.
New Selection

3. To resist antibiotics & pesticides.

Staphylococus aureus
Roundup ready
Selection Today.

• Dogs
• Chickens
• Plants
• Humans
Human Evolution.

• Who were the first hominids?

• What is the human story?
• Evidence of continuing evolution:
– Lactose tolerance.
– Ethics.
– Size of brain.
– Many more.