Transmission

Lines

EEL 3472
 Transmission Lines

Cross-sectional view of typical (a) Coaxial line connecting the

transmission lines (a) coaxial line, generator to the load; (b) E
(b) two-wire line, (c) planar line, (d) and H fields on the coaxial line
wire above conducting plane, (e)
microstrip line.

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 Transmission Lines

Electric and magnetic fields around

single-phase transmission line
Triplate line

Stray field

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 Transmission Lines

Transmission Lines

Transmission Line Equations for a Lossless Line

The transmission line consists of two parallel and uniform conuductors, not
necessarily identical.
Lh  Lh Ch  Ch
Where L and C are the inductance and capacitance per unit length of the line,
respectively.
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 Transmission Lines
di
Lh N
dt

iNS

N’ (N+1)’
Definitions of currents and voltages for the lumped-circuit transmission-line model.

By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to N - (N + 1) - (N + 1)’ - N’ loop, we obtain

diN
Lh  v N  v N 1
dt
di v  vN
L N   N 1
dt h
If node N is at the position z, node (N +1) is at position z + h, and iN  i(z)
d v(z  h)  v(z)
L i(z)  
dt h
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 Transmission Lines

Since h is an arbitrary small distance, we can let h approach zero

 v(z  h)  v(z) 
L i(z)   lim  
t h  0  h 
 
L i(z)   v(z)
t z

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node N we get


dVN
iNS  Ch  iN 1  iN
dt
from which
 
C v( z )   i( z )
t z

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 Transmission Lines
All cross-sectional
information about L ti   V
z
 Telegrapher’s
the particular line  Equations
is contained in L C V t   i
z 
and C

2i  2v
L tz
 z 2
C 2v
t 2
  2i
zt



 LC 2v
t 2
 2v
z 2

2v
1 2v
t 2
 z2
0 Wave Equation
LC
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 Transmission Lines

Waves on the Lossless Transmission Line

Roughly speaking, a wave is a disturbance that moves away from its source as
time passes. Suppose that the voltage on a transmission line as a function of
position z and time t has the form

V(z,t) = f(z-Ut) U = const

This is the same function as f(z), but shifted to the right a
distance of Ut along the z axis. The displacement increases as
time increases. The velocity of motion is U.
x = Z-Ut
f(x) has its maximum where x = z – Ut = 0, and the
position of maximum Zmax at t = to is given by Zmax
= Uto

Any function of the argument (z-Ut) keeps

its shape and moves as a unit in the +z
direction. For example, let f(x) be the
triangular function shown in (a). Then at
time t=0 f(z-Ut)=f(z) is the function of z
shown in (b). At a later time to , f(z-Ut)=f(z-
Uto) is the function of z shown in (c). Note
that the pulse is moving to the right with
velocity U.

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 Transmission Lines

The function V(z,t) = f(z-Ut) describes undistorted propogation in the +z

direction and represents a solution of the wave equation for a lossless
transmission line:
2v
1 2v
t 2
 z2
0 Wave Equation
LC

2 ''
2v
t 2
 U f (z  Ut ) 2v
z 2
 f ''(z  Ut )
1
2
U  0
LC
1
U 
LC
1
The wave equation is satisfied provided that U
LC

The leftward-traveling wave v(z,t) = f(z+Ut) is also a solution.

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 v(z,t)=Acos(kz-ωt) (U= ω/k) Transmission Lines

t=0

An important special case is that in which

the function f is a sinusoid. Fig (a) shows
the function v(z,t)=Acos(kz-ωt) as it
appears if photographed with a flash
camera at time t=0. In (b) it is seen at
the later time to

t = to

The wavelength of the wave is defined as the distance between the maxima at
any fixed instant of time. V(z,t) has maxima when its argument (kz-ωt) is zero,
±2π, ±4π, etc. At t = 0, there is a maximum at z = 0. The next one occurs when
kz = 2π , or z = 2π / k.
λ= 2π / k
U = 2πf / k = λf
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 Transmission Lines

The separation of time and space dependence for sinusoidal (time – harmonic)
waves is achieved by the use of phasors.
Phasors are the complex quantities (in polar form) representing the magnitude
and the phase of sinusoidal functions. Phasors are independent of time.

f (t )  Re[ f e jt ]
Time-harmonic function Time Factor
expressed as a cosine wave “The real
Phasor
part of”

For a wave v(z, t )  A cos(kz  t ) moving in the +z direction,

v(z, t )  A cos(kz  t )  A cos(kz  t )  Re[Ae jkze jt ]


The phasor representing this positive – going wave is v (z)  Ae jkz

For a wave v(z, t )  A cos(kz  t ) moving to the left,

v(z, t )  A cos(kz  t )  Re[Ae jkze jt ]


v (z)  Ae jkz

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 Transmission Lines

A = const at all z since we are dealing

with a lossless line. However, the
phase does vary with z.
Right-ward
moving
wave

For the leftward – moving wave, the

phasor would rotate in the counter –
clockwise direction.
 Ae jkz
 Ae  jk2 z

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 Transmission Lines
Characteristic Impedance
The positive - going voltage wave:

(A=constant, Φ = constant) v   A cos(t    kz ) Instantaneous voltage


v (z)  Ae jkze j Voltage phasor

The second telegrapher’s equation in phasor form

Lj i(z)   z v(z)

For the positive – going wave,

 
Lji (z)  ( jkAe  jkze j )  jkv (z)


v ( z ) L Characteristic impedance

  Zo
i (z ) k (independent of position)

Since k   and U 
1
U LC

Zo  L / C - real number (50-400Ω)

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 Transmission Lines
Characteristic Impedance continued

For a negative – going wave,


v

  Zo
i

Power transmitted by a single wave

2

  *
v

P  Re[v (i ) ] 
1
2
1
2 (average
Zo
power; the
instantaneous
power
oscillates at

v

twice the
 
v (v )*  v

i  fundamental
Zo frequency)

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 Transmission Lines
Reflection and Transmission

 
At z = 0, v(z  0)  v i (z  0)  v r (z  0)
 
i(z  0)  i i (z  0)  i r (z  0)

1  
 [v i (z  0)  v r (z  0)]
Zo
vL
v(z  0)  v L i(z  0)  i L  ZL
iL
 
v( z  0) v ( z  0)  v r ( z  0)
 Z o i 
 ZL
i( z  0) v i ( z  0)  v r ( z  0)

 
Assuming that the incident wave v i is known and solving for v r , we obtain
 ZL  Zo 
v r (z  0)  v i (z  0)
ZL  Zo

v r (z  0) ZL  Zo Load’s Reflection
  

v i (z  0) ZL  Zo
o
Coefficient
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 Transmission Lines
Reflection and Transmission continued

Example Suppose ZL = ∞ (open circuit). Find the distribution of the voltage on


the line if the incident wave is v i (z)  Ae jkz
Assume that A is real (Φ = 0)
o  1
 
The total voltage on the line is: v(z)  v i (z)  v r (z)
  
v r (z)  v r (z  0)e jkz  ov i (z  0)e jkz  Ae jkz
v(z)  Ae jkz  Ae jkz e j  e j
 2 Acos kz (cos   )
2
2N  1  3 5
v(z)  0 at z   (kz   , , ...)
2k 2 2 2
jt
The instantaneous voltage is: v(z, t )  Re[v(z)e ]  2 A cos kz cos t
2N  1 v(z, t )  0 at all times.
At z  
2k
The total voltage is the sum of the two waves of equal amplitude moving
in opposite directions. The positions of zero total voltage stand still. This
phenomenon is referred to as a standing wave.
In the case of a single traveling wave, v(z, t)  A cos(kz  t ) , there are positions
where the voltage vanishes, but these positions move at the velocity of the wave
U   /k
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 Transmission Lines
Reflection and Transmission continued
Z  Zo  jkz
If ZL  0 (short circuit), o  L  1 and v(z)  Ae  Ae jkz  2 jA sinkz
ZL  Zo
e j  e j
(sin  )
2j
N
Again we have a standing wave but with the nulls at z 
k
(n  1)
If ZL  RL  nZo (resistive), o  ( o  1)
(n  1)
When n=1 ( RL  Zo , i.e. the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance),

the reflected wave vanishes o  0

Suppose that one more transmission line is connected at the load terminals
(z=0)

Z01 Z02

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 Transmission Lines
Reflection and Transmission continued
 
The voltage at z=0, if we approach from the left, is v i (z  0)  v r (z  0) . If we

approach from the right, it is v t (z  0) . Thus we can write:
  
v i (z  0)  v r (z  0)  v t (z  0)
  
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law we get i i (z  0)  i r (z  0)  i t (z  0)  i L

v ( z  0) 
Further, iL  t v L  v t (z  0)
ZL
    
The currents i i , i r , and i t can be expressed in term of v i , v r , and

v t ,respectively: v
  

i  i  v  v
i  t
i i  r
Z0 1 r t
Z0 1 Z 02

 
Now, assuming that v i (z  0) is known, we can find v r (z  0) and v t (z  0)


 
v (z  0) Z11  Z01 v (z  0) 2Z11
o  r    t  (Z11  ZL || Z02)
v i (z  0) Z11  Z01 v i (z  0) Z11  Z01
(Reflection Coefficient) (Transmission Coefficient)
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 Transmission Lines
Standing-Wave Ratio
(losseless transmission line)

The total phasor voltage as a function of position on a line connected to a load at

 
z=0 is v(z)  v (z)  v (z)  vi e jkz  vr e jkz
The magnitude of the reflected voltage phasor is
 
vr  v (z  0)  o v (z  0)  ovi o  o e j R

v(z )  v i (e  jkz  oe jkz ) * *

v (z)  vi (e jkz  o e  jkz )

* * 2 1
v(z)  v(z)v (z)  vi [1  oe2 jkz  o e 2 jkz  o ]2
2 1
 vi [1  o  2 Re(oe2 jkz )]2
The amplitude 2 2 jkz  jR 1
of voltage as a  vi [1  o  2 o Re(e )] 2

function of z
2 1
 vi [1  o  2 o cos(2kz  R )] 2

At any position, the instantaneous voltage on the line is a sinusoidal function of

time, with the amplitude v(z) given by the above expression. The amplitude
regularly increases and decreases as the cosine function varies. The positions of
voltage amplitude maxima and minima are stationary (independent of time). This
phenomenon is referred to as a standing wave.

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 Transmission Lines
Standing-Wave Ratio continued
(losseless transmission line)

In the special case of o  0 , the reflected wave vanishes and there is only a
single traveling wave moving to the right. In this case the voltage amplitude is
independent of position (“flat” voltage profile).

If there are two (or more) traveling waves on the line, they will interact to
produce a standing wave.

Vi  1 V
 o  0 .5
R  45
Z o  50 

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 Transmission Lines
Standing-Wave Ratio continued
(losseless transmission line)

2 1
v  vi [ 1  o  2 o cos(2kz  R )]2
2 1
v max  v i [1  o  2 o ]2  v i (1  o ) (2kz  R  2N )
2 1
v min  v i [1  o  2 o ]2  v i (1  o ) (2kz  R  (2N  1) )

an integer

The standing-wave ratio (SWR) is defined as

v max 1  o
SWR   1 SWR = 1 when o  0
v min 1  o

For two adjacent maxima at, say, N=1 and N=0 we can write

2kz N 1  R  2
2kz N 0  R  0
  
z  zN 1  zN 0   
k 2
 2
Voltage maxima and minima repeat every half wavelength.
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 Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Equations for a Lossy Line
(sinusoidal waves)

From Kirchhoff’s laws in their phasor form, we have

i N ( jLh  Rh )  v N  v N 1
v N ( jCh  Gh )  i N 1  i N
Proceeding as before (for a lossless lines), we obtain the phasor form of the
telegrapher equations, v
i(z)( jL  R)  
z
i
v(z)( jC  G)  
z
where L, R, C, and G are, respectively, the series inductance, series resistance,
shunt capacitance, and shunt conductance per unit length.

The corresponding (voltage) wave equation is

2v 2 v
 ( jC  G)( jL  R)v  0 ( 2   2 v  0)
z 2 z

The two solutions of the wave equation are

v   A e z  +z
v   A ez -z
where A  and A  are constants describing the wave’s amplitude and phase and 

is the propagation constant.

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 Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Equations for a Lossy Line continued
(sinusoidal waves)

The propagation constant of a lossy transmission line is

(complex number)   (R  jL)(G  jC)    j

where  and  are real numbers.


Inserting R=0, G=0 (lossless line) we obtain

  j LC  j  jk (  0)

For the positive-going wave

v  Ae jz ez




Causes negative Causes attenuation

phase shift (phasor (amplitude becomes
rotates clockwise as smaller exponentially
z increases) as z increases)

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 Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Equations for a Lossy Line continued
(sinusoidal waves)

A phase shift of  z equal to 2 corresponds to the wave travel distance z equal

to the wavelength  :
  2 2



 is the phase constant (measured in radians per meter)

 is the attenuation constant (measured in Nepers per meter)
 1 is the attenuation length (amplitude decreases 1/e over z=  1 )

The corresponding instantaneous voltage is

In general,
v(z, t )  A cos(z  t )ez (A is assumed
nonlinear
to be real)
functions of
ω
The position of a maximum is given by

zmax  t zmax  t

As t increases, the maximum moves to the right with velocity
dzmax 
 - Phase Velocity (Up)
dt 
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 Transmission Lines
Dispersion
In general, the phase velocity Up is a function of frequency; that is, a signal containing many
frequencies tends to become ‘dispersed’ (some parts of the signal arrived sooner and others
later.)
Up is independent of frequency for (1) lossless lines (R=0, G=0) and (2) distortionless lines
(R/L=G/C) because for those lines β is a linear function of ω.
U p  UG  c
Cut-off frequency Example of dispersion
 o  1.35  10 rad s
10
diagram for an
arbitrary system that is

U p  ;UG  0  characterized by
Up>c

Up at any frequency is equal to the slope of a line drawn from the origin to the
corresponding point on the graph. For ω = 1.35x101 0 radians/second Up = ∞. In
general, Up can be either greater or less then c.
Information in a wave travels at a different velocity known as the group velocity
d
UG 
d
UG is equal to the slope of the tangent to the ω-β curve at the frequency in
question (for   o UG  0 for this particular system). UG always remains less
then c.
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 Transmission Lines
Non-Sinusoidal Waves
(lossless transmission line)

Reflection of a rectangular
pulse of a short circuit.

(a) Shows the incident pulse

moving to the right.

In (b) it is striking the short-

circuit termination, note that
the sum of the incident and
the reflected voltages must
always be zero at that
position.

In (c) the reflected pulse is

moving to the left.

26
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 Transmission Lines

2 Multiple Reflections

1
Zo
V1  Vo +z
Zo  RS

RL  Zo
1  V2  1V1 -z

t1 t2
 1
2 
RL  Zo
RS  Zo
V3  2V2 +z
RS  Zo
V0

Example Suppose t2 = ∞ (an infinitely long pulse or a step function) and RL  RS , so that
1  2  0 . Find the total voltage on the line after a very long time.

The initial (incident) wave moving to the right has amplitude

Zo
V1  Vo
Zo  RS

The first reflected wave moving to the left has amplitude

RS  Zo
V2  0V1 where 0 
RS  Zo

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 Transmission Lines
Multiple Reflections continued

The second reflected wave moving to the right has amplitude

V3  0 V1; V4  0 V1 and so on
2 3

The total voltage at t   is given by the infinite series

2 3 2 3 1
VT  V1  0V1  0 V1  0 V1  ...  V1(1  0  0  0  ...)  V1( )
1  0

V
Inserting the values of 0 and V1 we find that VT  0 (simply results from the voltage divider
of Rs and RL, as if the line were not there. 2

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 Transmission Lines
Lattice (bounce) diagram
This is a space/time diagram which is used to keep track of multiple reflections.

Ideal voltage
source 
90  30 10  30
z z 
90  30 10  30

Voltage at the
receiving end
l
T
U

29
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 Transmission Lines
Points to Remember

1. In this chapter we have surveyed several different types of waves

on transmission lines. It is important that these different cases not
be confused. When approaching a transmission-line problem, the
student should begin by asking, “Are the waves in this problem
sinusoidal, or rectangular pulses? Is the line ideal, or does it have
losses?” Then the proper approach to the problem can be taken.
2. The ideal lossless line supports waves of any shape (sinusoidal or
non-sinusoidal), and transmits them without distortion. The
velocity of these waves is (LC )1 /.2 The ratio of the voltage to current
k   LC
is Zo  L / C , provided that only one wave is present. Sinusoidal
UP  1 / LC waves are treated using phasor analysis. (A common error is that
of attempting to analyze non-sinusoidal waves with phasors.
Zo  L / C Beware! This makes no sense at all.)
3. When the line contains series resistance and or shunt conductance
it is said to be lossy. Lossy lines no longer exhibit undistorted
k    j propagation; hence a rectangular pulse launched on such a line will
not remain rectangular, instead evolving into irregular, messy
UP   /  shapes. However, sinusoidal waves, because of their unique
UG  d / d mathematical properties, do continue to be sinusoidal on lossy
lines. The presence of losses changes the velocity of propagation
and causes the wave to be attenuated (become smaller) as it
travels.
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 Transmission Lines
Points to Remember continued

4. For lines other than the simple ideal lossless lines, the velocity of
propagation usually is a function of frequency. This velocity, the speed of
voltage maxima on the line, is properly called the phase velocity Up. The
change of Up with frequency is called dispersion. The velocity with which
information travels on the line is not Up, but a different velocity, known as
the group velocity UG . The phase velocity is given by UP   /  . However
UG  d / d

5. Examples of non-sinusoidal waves are short rectangular pulses, and also

infinitely long rectangular pulses, which are the same as step functions.
Problems involving sudden voltage steps differ from sinusoidal problems,
just as in ordinary circuits, problems involving transients differ from the
sinusoidal steady state. Pulse problems are usually approached by
superposition; that is, one tracks the pulses that propagate back and forth,
adding up the waves to obtain the total voltage at any place and time.

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 Transmission Lines
Points to Remember continued

(Lossless line) 6. All kinds of waves are reflected at discontinuities in the line. If
the line continues beyond the discontinuity, a portion of the
2Z11
  wave is transmitted as well. The reflected and transmitted
Z11  Z01
waves are described by the reflection coefficient and the
ZL  Zo transmission coefficient. For sinusoidal waves there is a simple
o  formula giving the reflection coefficient for any load impedance
ZL  Zo
ZL. For non-sinusoidal waves, the same formula can be used,
but only if the load impedance is purely resistive. Otherwise the
reflected wave has a different shape from the incident wave,
and a reflection coefficient cannot be meaningfully defined.

7. In the case of non-sinusoidal waves, it is sometimes necessary

(Bounce to add up the contributions of many reflected waves bouncing
diagram) back and forth on the line. However, for sinusoidal steady-state
problems, it is only necessary to consider two waves, one
moving to the right and the other to the left.

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 Transmission Lines
Points to Remember continued

(Sinusoidal 8. When both an incident and reflected wave are simultaneously

Waves) present on a transmission line, a standing wave is said to be
present. This means that a stationary pattern of voltage maxima
and minima is present. The ratio of the maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage is called the standing-wave ratio (SWR). The
positions of the voltage maxima are determined by the phase
angle of the load’s reflection coefficient, and the spacing
between each pair of adjacent maxima is λ/2 (and not λ, as one
might think). Positions of maximum voltage are positions of
minimum current, and vice versa.

(Sinusoidal 9. The impedance Z(z) at any point on a line is defined as the ratio
Waves) of the total voltage phasor to the total current phasor at the
point z. If a standing wave is present, the impedance will be a
periodic function of position along the line, with period λ/2. Note
that this impedance is different from the “characteristic
impedance” Zo, which is a constant that depends only on the
construction of the line.

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